Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae | |
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Luculia gratissima | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Asterids |
Order: | Gentianales |
Family: | Rubiaceae Juss.
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Type genus | |
Rubia | |
Subfamilies | |
Synonyms | |
See text |
Rubiaceae (
Description
The Rubiaceae are morphologically easily recognizable as a coherent group by a combination of characters: opposite or whorled leaves that are simple and entire,
A wide variety of growth forms are present:
Distribution and habitat
Rubiaceae have a cosmopolitan distribution and are found in nearly every region of the world, except for extreme environments such as the polar regions and deserts. The distribution pattern of the family is very similar to the global distribution of plant diversity overall. However, the largest diversity is distinctly concentrated in the humid tropics and subtropics. An exception is the tribe Rubieae, which is cosmopolitan but centered in temperate regions. Only a few genera are pantropical (e.g. Ixora, Psychotria), many are paleotropical, while Afro-American distributions are rare (e.g. Sabicea). Endemic rubiaceous genera are found in most tropical and subtropical floristic regions of the world. The highest number of species is found in Colombia, Venezuela, and New Guinea. When adjusted for area, Venezuela is the most diverse, followed by Colombia and Cuba.[7]
The Rubiaceae consist of terrestrial and predominantly woody plants. Woody rubiaceous shrubs constitute an important part of the understorey of low- and mid-altitude rainforests. Rubiaceae are tolerant of a broad array of environmental conditions (soil types, altitudes, community structures, etc.) and do not specialize in one specific habitat type (although genera within the family often specialize).
Ecology
Flower biology
Most members of the Rubiaceae are
Although most Rubiaceae species are hermaphroditic,
Secondary pollen presentation (also known as stylar pollen presentation or ixoroid pollen mechanism) is especially known from the Gardenieae and related tribes. The flowers are proterandrous and the pollen is shed early onto the outside of the stigmas or the upper part of the style, which serve as a pollen receptacle. Increased surface area and irregularity of the pollen receptacle, caused by swellings, hairs, grooves or ridges often ensure a more efficient pollen deposition. After elongation of the style, animals transport the pollen to flowers in the female or receptive stage with exposed stigmatic surfaces. A pollen catapult mechanism is present in the genera Molopanthera and Posoqueria (tribe Posoquerieae) that projects a spherical pollen mass onto visiting hawk moths.[8]
Heterostyly is another mechanism to avoid inbreeding and is widely present in the family Rubiaceae.[9] The tribes containing the largest number of heterostylous species are Spermacoceae and Psychotrieae. Heterostyly is absent in groups that have secondary pollen presentation (e.g. Vanguerieae).
Unisexual flowers also occur in Rubiaceae and most taxa that have this characteristic are
Fruit biology
The dispersal units in Rubiaceae can be entire fruits, syncarps, mericarps, pyrenes or seeds. Fleshy fruit taxa are probably all (endo)zoochorous (e.g. tribes Pavetteae, Psychotrieae), while the dispersal of dry fruits is often unspecialized (e.g. tribes Knoxieae, Spermacoceae). When seeds function as diaspores, the dispersal is either anemochorous or hydrochorous. The three types of wind-dispersed diaspores in Rubiaceae are dust seeds (rare, e.g. Lerchea), plumed seeds (e.g. Hillia), and winged seeds (e.g. Coutarea). Long-distance dispersal by ocean currents is very rare (e.g. the seashore tree Guettarda speciosa). Other dispersal mechanisms are absent or at least very rare. Some Spermacoceae having seeds with elaiosomes are probably myrmecochorous (e.g. Spermacoce hepperiana). Epizoochorous taxa are limited to herbaceous Rubiaceae (e.g. Galium aparine fruits are densely covered with hooked bristly hairs).
Associations with other organisms
The genera
An intimate association between bacteria and plants is found in three rubiaceous genera (viz. Pavetta, Psychotria, and Sericanthe).[14] The presence of endophytic bacteria is visible by eye because of the formation of dark spots or nodules in the leaf blades. The endophytes have been identified as Burkholderia bacteria. A second type of bacterial leaf symbiosis is found in the genera Fadogia, Fadogiella, Globulostylis, Rytigynia, Vangueria (all belonging to the tribe Vanguerieae), where Burkholderia bacteria are found freely distributed among the mesophyll cells and no leaf nodules are formed.[15][16][17] The hypothesis regarding the function of the symbiosis is that the endophytes provide chemical protection against herbivory by producing certain toxic secondary metabolites.[18]
Systematics
The family Rubiaceae is named after Rubia, a name used by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia for madder (Rubia tinctorum).[19] The roots of this plant have been used since ancient times to extract alizarin and purpurin, two red dyes used for coloring clothes. The name rubia is therefore derived from the Latin word ruber, meaning red. The well-known genus Rubus (blackberries and raspberries) is unrelated and belongs to Rosaceae, the rose family.
Taxonomy
The name Rubiaceae (
Several historically accepted families have long been included in Rubiaceae: Aparinaceae, Asperulaceae, Catesbaeaceae, Cephalanthaceae, Cinchonaceae, Coffeaceae, Coutariaceae, Galiaceae, Gardeniaceae, Guettardaceae, Hameliaceae, Hedyotidaceae, Houstoniaceae, Hydrophylacaceae, Lippayaceae, Lygodisodeaceae, Naucleaceae, Nonateliaceae, Operculariaceae, Pagamaeaceae, Psychotriaceae, Randiaceae, Sabiceaceae, Spermacoceaceae.[1]
More recently, the morphologically quite different families Dialypetalanthaceae,[22] Henriqueziaceae,[23] and Theligonaceae[24][25][26] were reduced to synonymy of Rubiaceae.
Subfamilies and tribes
The classical classification system of Rubiaceae distinguished only two subfamilies: Cinchonoideae, characterized by more than one ovule in each locule, and Coffeoideae, having one ovule in each locule.[27][28] This distinction, however, was criticized because of the distant position of two obviously related tribes, viz. Gardenieae with many ovules in Cinchonoideae and Ixoreae with one ovule in Coffeoideae, and because in species of Tarenna the number of ovules varies from one to several in each locule.[29][30] During the twentieth century other characters were used to delineate subfamilies, e.g. stylar pollen presentation, raphides, endosperm, heterostyly, etc. On this basis, three[31] or eight[32] subfamilies were recognised. The last subfamilial classification solely based on morphological characters divided Rubiaceae into four subfamilies: Cinchonoideae, Ixoroideae, Antirheoideae, and Rubioideae.[5] In general, problems of subfamilies delimitation in Rubiaceae based on morphological characters are linked with the extreme naturalness of the family, hence a relatively low divergence of its members.[5]
The introduction of molecular phylogenetics in Rubiaceae research has corroborated or rejected several of the conclusions made in the pre-molecular era. There is support for the subfamilies Cinchonoideae, Ixoroideae, and Rubioideae, although differently circumscribed, and Antirheoideae is shown to be
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Genera
The family Rubiaceae contains about 13,500 species in 619 genera. This makes it the fourth-largest family of flowering plants by number of species and fifth-largest by number of genera. Although taxonomic adjustments are still being made, the total number of accepted genera remains stable. In total, around 1338 genus names have been published, indicating that more than half of the published names are synonyms.
Phylogeny
Molecular studies have demonstrated the phylogenetic placement of Rubiaceae within the order Gentianales and the monophyly of the family is confirmed.[40][41] The relationships of the three subfamilies of Rubiaceae together with the tribes Coptosapelteae and Luculieae are shown in the phylogenetic tree below. The placement of these two groups relative to the three subfamilies has not been fully resolved.[41]
Rubiaceae |
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Evolution
The fossil history of the Rubiaceae goes back at least as far as the
The oldest confirmed fossils, which are fruits that strongly resemble those of the genus
Fossil Rubiaceae are known from three regions in the Eocene (North America north of Mexico, Mexico-Central America-Caribbean, and Southeast Pacific-Asia). In the Oligocene, they are found in these three regions plus Africa. In the Miocene, they are found in these four regions plus South America and Europe.[42]
Uses
Food
No staple foods are found in the Rubiaceae, but some species are consumed locally and fruits may be used as famine food. Examples are African medlar fruits (e.g. V. infausta, V. madagascariensis), African peach (Nauclea latifolia), and noni (Morinda citrifolia).
Beverage
The most economically important member of the family is the genus Coffea used in the production of coffee. Coffea includes 124 species, but only three species are cultivated for coffee production: C. arabica, C. canephora, and C. liberica.[7]
Medicinal
The bark of trees in the genus
Ornamentals
Originally from China, the common gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides) is a widely grown garden plant and flower in frost-free climates worldwide. Several other species from the genus are also seen in horticulture. The genus Ixora contains plants cultivated in warmer-climate gardens; the most commonly grown species, Ixora coccinea, is frequently used for pretty red-flowering hedges. Mussaenda cultivars with enlarged, colored calyx lobes are shrubs with the aspect of Hydrangea; they are mainly cultivated in tropical Asia. The New Zealand native Coprosma repens is a commonly used plant for hedges. The South African Rothmannia globosa is seen as a specimen tree in horticulture. Nertera granadensis is a well-known house plant cultivated for its conspicuous orange berries. Other ornamental plants include Mitchella, Morinda, Pentas, and Rubia.
Dyes
Rose madder, the crushed root of Rubia tinctorum, yields a red dye, and the tropical Morinda citrifolia yields a yellow dye.
Culture
- Cinchona officinalis is the national tree of Ecuador and Peru.
- Coffea arabica is the national flower of Yemen.
- Ixora coccinea is the national flower of Suriname.
- Warszewiczia coccinea is the national flower of Trinidad and Tobago.
- The International Coffee Day is held each year on September 29.
Image gallery
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Morinda pubescens
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Psychotria poeppigiana
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Sherardia arvensis
References
- ^ a b "Angiosperm Phylogeny Website". Retrieved 1 June 2014.
- ^ Hammel BE (2015). "Three new species of Pentagonia (Rubiaceae) from southern Central America, one foreseen, two surprising" (PDF). Phyotneuron. 46: 1–13.
- ^ Hall, D; Vandiver, V; Sellers, B (1991). "Brazil Pusley, Richardia brasiliensis (Moq.)" (PDF). University of Florida. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
- ^ Igersheim A, Puff C, Leins P, Erbar C (1994). "Gynoecial development of Gaertnera Lam. and of presumably allied taxa of the Psychotrieae (Rubiaceae): secondary 'superior' vs. inferior ovaries". Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik. 116: 401–414.
- ^ a b c d e Robbrecht E (1988). "Tropical woody Rubiaceae". Opera Botanica Belgica. 1: 1–271.
- ISBN 978-1-4020-9608-2.
- ^ S2CID 86558504.
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- ^ Jussieu A L de (1789). Genera Plantarum. Paris: Herissant & Barrois. p. 206.
- ^ Durand JF (1782). Notions Élémentaires de Botanique. Dijon: LN Frantin. p. 274.
- JSTOR 4113630.
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- ^ a b Robbrecht E, Manen JF (2006). "The major evolutionary lineages of the coffee family (Rubiaceae, angiosperms). Combined analysis (nDNA and cpDNA) to infer the position of Coptosapelta and Luculia, and supertree construction based on rbcL, rps16, trnL-trnF and atpB-rbcL data. A new classification in two subfamilies, Cinchonoideae and Rubioideae". Systematic Geography of Plants. 76: 85–146.
- ^ Hooker JD (1873). "Ordo LXXXIV. Rubiaceae". In Bentham G, Hooker JD (eds.). Genera planetarium ad exemplaria imprimis in herbaria kewensibus servata defirmata. Vol. 2. London. pp. 7–151.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Schumann K (1891). "Rubiaceae". In Engler A, Prantl K (eds.). Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Vol. 4. Leipzig: Engelmann. pp. 1–156.
- ^ Baillon H (1878). "Sur les limits du genre Ixora". Adansonia. 12: 213–219.
- ^ Solereder H (1893). "Ein Beitrag zur anatomischen Charakteristik und zur Systematik deer Rubiaceen". Bull. Herb. Boissier. 1: 167–183.
- JSTOR 3667090.
- .
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- S2CID 53378010.
- ^ Reveal JL (2012). "Newly required infrafamilial names mandated by changes in the code of nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants". Phytoneuron. 33: 1–32.
- .
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- ^ "World Checklist of Rubiaceae". Retrieved 1 March 2016.
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- ^ S2CID 49332892.
- ^ S2CID 84196922.
- S2CID 6147566.
- ^ Neuwinger, Hans Dieter (1994). African Ethnobotany: Poisons and Drugs: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology. Stuttgart, Germany: Chapman & Hall.
External links
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 808. .
- Rubiaceae at The Plant List
- Rubiaceae at Encyclopedia of Life
- Rubiaceae at Angiosperm Phylogeny Website
- Rubiaceae at Flora of China
- Rubiaceae at Flora of Pakistan
- Rubiaceae at Flora of Zimbabwe
- Rubiaceae at Flora of Western Australia
- Rubiaceae at Flora of New Zealand
- Rubiaceae at Integrated Taxonomic Information System
- Rubiaceae at USDA NRCS Plants Database
- Rubiaceae Archived 2011-10-01 at the Wayback Machine at Botanic Garden Meise Archived 2011-02-20 at the Wayback Machine
- World Checklist of Rubiaceae at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew