Siege of Calais (1346–1347)
Siege of Calais | |||||||
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Part of the Crécy campaign during the Hundred Years' War | |||||||
A Medieval depiction of the Siege of Calais | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
England | France | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Edward III |
Jean de Vienne | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
• Between 5,000 and 32,000 soldiers at different times • Up to 20,000 Flemish allies • Up to 24,000 sailors in the supporting fleet |
• Garrison size – unknown • Field army – up to 20,000 |
The siege of Calais (4 September 1346 – 3 August 1347) occurred at the conclusion of the
The English army of some 10,000 men had landed in northern
On 25 June Jean de Vienne wrote to Philip stating that their food was exhausted. On 17 July Philip marched north with an army estimated at between 15,000 and 20,000 men. Confronted with a well-entrenched English and Flemish force of more than 50,000, he withdrew. On 3 August Calais capitulated. It provided the English with an important strategic lodgement for the remainder of the Hundred Years' War and beyond. The port was not recaptured by the French until 1558.
Background
Since the Norman Conquest of 1066, English monarchs had held titles and lands within France, the possession of which made them vassals of the kings of France. The status of the English king's French fiefs was a major source of conflict between the two monarchies throughout the Middle Ages. French monarchs systematically sought to check the growth of English power, stripping away lands as the opportunity arose.[1] Over the centuries, English holdings in France had varied in size, but by 1337 only Gascony in south-western France was left.[2] The Gascons preferred their relationship with a distant English king who left them alone, to one with a French king who would interfere in their affairs.[3][4] Following a series of disagreements between Philip VI of France (r. 1328–1350) and Edward III of England (r. 1327–1377), on 24 May 1337 Philip's Great Council in Paris agreed that Gascony and Ponthieu should be taken back into Philip's hands on the grounds that Edward was in breach of his obligations as a vassal. This marked the start of the Hundred Years' War, which was to last 116 years.[5]
Prelude
Although Gascony was the cause of the war, Edward was able to spare few resources for it; whenever an English army had campaigned on the continent, it had operated in northern France.
Edward's aim was to conduct a
They devastated the country to the suburbs of Rouen before leaving a swath of destruction, rape and slaughter along the left bank of the Seine to Poissy, 20 miles (32 km) from Paris.[18][19] Duke John of Normandy, Philip's oldest son and heir, had been in charge of France's main army, campaigning in the English occupied province of Gascony in south-west France; Philip ordered him north, to reinforce the army facing Edward.[20] Meanwhile, the English had turned north and become trapped in territory which the French had denuded of food. They escaped by fighting their way across the Somme against a French blocking force.[21][22][23] Two days later, on 26 August 1346, fighting on ground of their own choosing, the English inflicted a heavy defeat on the French at the Battle of Crécy.[24]
Siege
After resting for two days and burying the dead, the English, requiring supplies and reinforcements, marched north. They continued to devastate the land, and razed several towns, including Wissant, the normal port of disembarkation for English shipping to north-east France.[25] Outside the burning town Edward held a council, which decided to capture Calais. The city was an ideal entrepôt from an English point of view, and close to the border of Flanders and Edward's Flemish allies.[26][27] The English arrived outside the town on 4 September and besieged it.[28]
Calais was strongly fortified: it boasted a double
French disorder
Philip vacillated: on the day the siege of Calais began he disbanded most of his army to save money, convinced that Edward had finished his chevauchée and would proceed to Flanders and ship his army home. On or shortly after 7 September, Duke John made contact with Philip, having already disbanded his own army. On 9 September Philip announced that the army would reassemble at
Since June Philip had been calling on the Scots to fulfil their obligation under the terms of the
Even though only 3,000 men-at-arms had assembled at Compiègne, the French treasurer was unable to pay them.
Military operations
During the winter of 1346–47 the English army shrank, possibly to as few as 5,000 men at some points. This was due to: many soldiers' terms of service expiring; a deliberate reduction by Edward for reasons of economy; an outbreak of dysentery in Neuville which caused major loss of life;[note 2] and widespread desertion.[49] Despite his reduced numbers, between mid-November and late February Edward made several attempts to breach the walls with trebuchets or cannon, or to take the town by assault, either from the land or seaward sides; all were unsuccessful.[50][51] During the winter the French made great efforts to strengthen their naval resources. This included French and mercenary Italian galleys and French merchant ships, many adapted for military use. During March and April, more than 1,000 long tons (1,000 t) of supplies were run into Calais without opposition.[52] Philip attempted to take the field with his army in late April, but the French ability to assemble in a timely fashion had not improved since the autumn and by July it had still not fully mustered.[53] Taxes proved ever more difficult to collect, with many towns using all available funds to reinforce their walls or equip their militia, and much of the nobility crippled by debt they had accumulated paying for the previous nine years of war.[54] Several French nobles suggested to Edward that they may switch their allegiance.[55] Inconclusive fighting occurred in April and May: the French tried and failed to cut the English supply route to Flanders, while the English tried and failed to capture Saint-Omer and Lille.[56] In June the French attempted to secure their flank by launching a major offensive against the Flemings; this was defeated at Cassel.[57]
Early in 1347 Edward took steps to substantially increase the size of his army; in large part he was able to do this because the Scottish army's threat to the north of England and the French navy's threat to the south were much reduced. It is known, for example, that he ordered the recruitment of 7,200 archers; this is nearly as many men as the entire invasion force of the previous year.[58] In late April the English established a fortification on the end of the spit of sand to the north of Calais, which enabled them to command the entrance to the harbour and prevent any further supplies reaching the garrison.[31][59] In May, June and July the French attempted to force convoys through, unsuccessfully.[60] On 25 June the commander of the Calais garrison wrote to Philip stating that their food was exhausted and suggesting that they may have to resort to cannibalism.[60] Despite increasing financial difficulties, the English steadily reinforced their army through 1347, reaching a peak strength of 32,000; the largest English army to be deployed overseas prior to 1600.[45][61] 20,000 Flemings were gathered within a day's march of Calais.[61] English shipping ran an effective ferry service to the siege from June 1347, bringing in supplies, equipment and reinforcements.[62]
On 17 July Philip led the French army north. Alerted to this, Edward called the Flemings to Calais. On 27 July the French came within view of the town, 6 miles (10 km) away. Their army was between 15,000 and 20,000 strong; a third of the size of the English and their allies, who had prepared
Subsequent activities
As soon as Calais capitulated, Edward paid off a large part of his army and released his Flemish allies. Philip in turn stood down the French army. Edward promptly launched strong raids up to 30 miles (48 km) into French territory.[67] Philip attempted to recall his army, setting a date of 1 September, but experienced serious difficulties. His treasury was exhausted and taxes for the war had to be collected in many places at sword point. Despite these exigencies, ready cash was not forthcoming.[68] The French army had little stomach for further conflict, and Philip was reduced to threatening to confiscate the estates of nobles who refused to muster.[68] He set back the date for his army to assemble by a month.[68] Edward also had difficulties in raising money, partly due to the unexpected timing of the need; he employed draconian measures, which were extremely unpopular.[69] The English also suffered a pair of military setbacks: a large raid was routed by the French garrison of Saint-Omer; and a supply convoy en route to Calais was captured by French raiders from Boulogne.[68]
Given the military misfortunes and financial exhaustion of both sides, the Pope's emissaries now found willing listeners. Negotiations began on 4 September and by the 28th a truce had been agreed.[70] The treaty strongly favoured the English, and confirmed them in possession of all of their territorial conquests.[70] The Truce of Calais was agreed to run for nine months to 7 July 1348, but was extended repeatedly over the years until it was formally set aside in 1355.[71] The truce did not stop the ongoing naval clashes between the two countries, nor the fighting in Gascony and Brittany. After full-scale war resumed in 1355 it continued until 1360, when it ended in an English victory with the Treaty of Brétigny.[72] The period of the chevauchée, from the landing in Normandy to the fall of Calais, became known as Edward III's annus mirabilis (year of marvels).[8]
Aftermath
Calais was vital to England's effort against the French for the rest of the war,
Memorials
In 1884, Calais commissioned a statue by Auguste Rodin of the town leaders at the moment of their surrender to Edward. The resulting work, The Burghers of Calais, was completed in 1889.[76] An account by the contemporary chronicler Froissart claims that the burghers expected to be executed, but their lives were spared by the intervention of England's queen, Philippa of Hainault, Froissart's patron, who persuaded her husband to exercise mercy.[77]
Notes, citations and sources
Notes
- ^ This is separate from the 747 vessels involved in shipping the army to Normandy in July 1346.[36]
- ^ The contemporary chronicler Thomas of Burton claimed that dysentery halved the effective strength of the English army, and that it was God's punishment for the large number of prostitutes in Nouville.[48]
Citations
- ^ Prestwich 2007, p. 394.
- ^ Harris 1994, p. 8.
- ^ Crowcroft & Cannon 2015, p. 389.
- ^ Lacey 2008, p. 122.
- ^ Sumption 1990, p. 184.
- ^ Rogers 2004, p. 95.
- ^ Rodger 2004, p. 102.
- ^ a b c Lambert 2011, p. 247.
- ^ Oman 1998, p. 131.
- ^ Burne 1999, p. 138.
- ^ Allmand 1989, p. 15.
- ^ a b Rodger 2004, p. 103.
- ^ Rogers 1994, p. 92.
- ^ Sumption 1990, p. 507.
- ^ Ormrod 2008.
- ^ Ormrod 1990, p. 275.
- ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 507–510.
- ^ Burne 1999, p. 150.
- ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 514–515.
- ^ Rogers 2010.
- ^ Curry 2002, pp. 31–39.
- ^ Hardy 2010, pp. 64–65.
- ^ Burne 1999, pp. 156–160.
- ^ DeVries 1998, pp. 166–175.
- ^ Sumption 1990, p. 532.
- ^ Oman 1998, p. 148.
- ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 532, 534.
- ^ a b Burne 1999, p. 207.
- ^ Sumption 1990, p. 535.
- ^ a b c d Wagner 2006a, p. 72.
- ^ a b c d e Wagner 2006b, p. 73.
- ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 535, 557.
- ^ Sumption 1990, p. 537.
- ^ Burne 1999, p. 210.
- ^ a b Sumption 1990, pp. 537–538, 557.
- ^ Lambert 2011, p. 247 n. 11.
- ^ Sumption 1990, p. 539.
- ^ Fowler 1969, pp. 67–71.
- ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 541–550.
- ^ Sumption 1990, p. 554.
- ^ Penman 2004, pp. 157–180.
- ^ Nicholson 1974, p. 111.
- ^ Wagner 2006d, pp. 228–229.
- ^ Sumption 1999, pp. 145–148.
- ^ a b Ormrod 1990, p. 17.
- ^ a b Sumption 1990, pp. 554–556.
- ^ Lambert 2011, p. 255.
- ^ DeVries 1998, p. 176.
- ^ Lambert 2011, p. 253.
- ^ Adams 2017.
- ^ Sumption 1990, p. 558.
- ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 559–560.
- ^ Sumption 1990, p. 560.
- ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 560–561.
- ^ Sumption 1990, p. 562.
- ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 565, 567.
- ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 570–571.
- ^ Lambert 2011, p. 249.
- ^ Sumption 1990, p. 568.
- ^ a b Sumption 1990, pp. 576–577.
- ^ a b Sumption 1990, p. 578.
- ^ Lambert 2011, pp. 251, 256.
- ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 578–580.
- ^ Oman 1998, pp. 153–154.
- ^ a b Wagner 2006b, p. 74.
- ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 580–583.
- ^ Sumption 1990, p. 583.
- ^ a b c d Sumption 1990, p. 584.
- ^ Ormrod 1990, pp. 21, 189.
- ^ a b Sumption 1990, p. 585.
- ^ Wagner 2006c, pp. 74–75.
- ^ Rogers 1994, p. 102.
- ^ Sumption 1999, pp. 19–21, 23.
- ^ Corfis & Wolfe 1999, p. 55.
- ^ Jaques 2007, p. 184.
- ^ Jianou 1970, p. 69.
- ^ Froissart 1908, p. 125.
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