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While the modern concept of sustainable development is derived mostly from the 1986 [[Brundtland Commission|Brundtland Report]], it is also rooted in earlier ideas about [[sustainable forest management]] and twentieth-century environmental concerns. As the concept of sustainable development developed, it has shifted its focus more towards the [[economic development]], social development and environmental protection for future generations.
While the modern concept of sustainable development is derived mostly from the 1986 [[Brundtland Commission|Brundtland Report]], it is also rooted in earlier ideas about [[sustainable forest management]] and twentieth-century environmental concerns. As the concept of sustainable development developed, it has shifted its focus more towards the [[economic development]], social development and environmental protection for future generations.


The concept of sustainable development has been, and still is, subject to criticism, including the question of what is to be sustained in sustainable development. It has been argued that there is no such thing as a sustainable use of a [[non-renewable resource]], since any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to the exhaustion of earth's finite stock;<ref name=kt01>{{cite book |last=Turner |first=R. Kerry |date=1988 |chapter=Sustainability, Resource Conservation and Pollution Control: An Overview |editor-last=Turner |editor-first=R. Kerry |title=Sustainable Environmental Management. |location=London |publisher=Belhaven Press }}</ref>{{rp|13}} this perspective renders the [[Industrial Revolution]] as a whole unsustainable.<ref name=ngr01>{{cite book |last=Georgescu-Roegen |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen |date=1971 |title=The Entropy Law and the Economic Process |url=https://archive.org/details/entropylawe00nich |format=Full book accessible at Scribd |location=Cambridge |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674257801 }}</ref>{{rp|20f}}<ref name=jr01>{{cite book |last=Rifkin |first=Jeremy |author-link=Jeremy Rifkin |date=1980 |title=Entropy: A New World View. |url=http://www.foet.org/FOET-data/uploads/2017/03/Jeremy-Rifkin-Entropy-table-of-contents.pdf |format=PDF contains only the title and contents pages of the book |location=New York |publisher=The Viking Press |isbn=978-0670297177 }}</ref>{{rp|61–67}}<ref name=hd01>{{cite book |last=Daly |first=Herman E. |author-link=Herman Daly |edition=2nd |date=1992 |title=Steady-state economics |location=London |publisher=Earthscan Publications }}</ref>{{rp|22f}} It has also been argued that the meaning of the concept has opportunistically been stretched from 'conservation management' to 'economic development', and that the [[Brundtland Report]] promoted nothing but a business as usual strategy for world development, with an ambiguous and insubstantial concept attached as a public relations slogan. ([[#Insubstantial stretching of the term|see below]]).<ref name=to01>{{cite book |last=O'Riordan |first=Timothy |date=1993 |chapter=The Politics of Sustainability |editor-last=Turner |editor-first=R. Kerry |title=Sustainable Environmental Economics and Management: Principles and Practice. |location=London |publisher=Belhaven Press }}</ref>{{rp|48–54}}<ref name=ap01>{{cite book |last=Perez-Carmona |first=Alexander |date=2013 |chapter=Growth: A Discussion of the Margins of Economic and Ecological Thought |chapter-url=http://www.slideshare.net/lucieevers1/growth-in-margin-of-ecological-thought-by-perez |editor-last=Meuleman |editor-first=Louis |title=Transgovernance. Advancing Sustainability Governance. |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-28009-2_3 |chapter-format=Article accessible at SlideShare |location=Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783642280085 |pages=83–161}}</ref>{{rp|94–99}}
The concept of sustainable development has been, and still is, subject to criticism, including the question of what is to be sustained in sustainable development. It has been argued that there is no such thing as a sustainable use of a [[non-renewable resource]], since any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to the exhaustion of earth's finite stock;<ref name=kt01>{{cite book |last=Turner |first=R. Kerry |date=1988 |chapter=Sustainability, Resource Conservation and Pollution Control: An Overview |editor-last=Turner |editor-first=R. Kerry |title=Sustainable Environmental Management. |location=London |publisher=Belhaven Press }}</ref>{{rp|13}} this perspective renders the [[Industrial Revolution]] as a whole unsustainable.<ref name=ngr01>{{cite book |last=Georgescu-Roegen |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen |date=1971 |title=The Entropy Law and the Economic Process |url=https://archive.org/details/entropylawe00nich |format=Full book accessible at Scribd |location=Cambridge |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674257801 }}</ref>{{rp|20f}}<ref name=jr01>{{cite book |last=Rifkin |first=Jeremy |author-link=Jeremy Rifkin |date=1980 |title=Entropy: A New World View. |url=http://www.foet.org/FOET-data/uploads/2017/03/Jeremy-Rifkin-Entropy-table-of-contents.pdf |format=PDF contains only the title and contents pages of the book |location=New York |publisher=The Viking Press |isbn=978-0670297177 }}</ref>{{rp|61–67}}<ref name=hd01>{{cite book |last=Daly |first=Herman E. |author-link=Herman Daly |edition=2nd |date=1992 |title=Steady-state economics |location=London |publisher=Earthscan Publications }}</ref>{{rp|22f}}


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International recognition of ESD as the key enabler for sustainable development is growing steadily. The role of ESD was recognized in three major UN summits on sustainable development: the 1992 [[Earth Summit|UN Conference on Environment and Development]] (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa; and the 2012 [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development|UN Conference on Sustainable Development]] (UNCSD) in Rio de Janeiro. Other key global agreements such as the [[Paris Agreement]] (Article 12) also recognize the importance of ESD. Today, ESD is arguably at the heart of the [[Sustainable Development Goals|2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] and its 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) (United Nations, 2015). The SDGs recognize that all countries must stimulate action in the following key areas – people, [[planet]], prosperity, [[peace]] and partnership – to tackle the global challenges that are crucial for the survival of humanity. Some of these SDGs include [[Sustainable Development Goal 7|ensuring affordable and clean energy]], providing [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|clean water and sanitation]], and [[Sustainable Development Goal 17|partnership for these goals]]. ESD is explicitly mentioned in Target 4.7 of SDG4, which aims to ensure that all [[Learning|learners]] acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development and is understood as an important means to achieve all the other 16 SDGs (UNESCO, 2017).<ref name="UNESCO" /> Additionally, [[Sustainable Development Goal 17|SDG17]] focuses on strengthening the means of implementation and revitalization of global partnership for sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Goal 17 {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs|url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal17|access-date=2020-09-25|website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref>
International recognition of ESD as the key enabler for sustainable development is growing steadily. The role of ESD was recognized in three major UN summits on sustainable development: the 1992 [[Earth Summit|UN Conference on Environment and Development]] (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa; and the 2012 [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development|UN Conference on Sustainable Development]] (UNCSD) in Rio de Janeiro. Other key global agreements such as the [[Paris Agreement]] (Article 12) also recognize the importance of ESD. Today, ESD is arguably at the heart of the [[Sustainable Development Goals|2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] and its 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) (United Nations, 2015). The SDGs recognize that all countries must stimulate action in the following key areas – people, [[planet]], prosperity, [[peace]] and partnership – to tackle the global challenges that are crucial for the survival of humanity. Some of these SDGs include [[Sustainable Development Goal 7|ensuring affordable and clean energy]], providing [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|clean water and sanitation]], and [[Sustainable Development Goal 17|partnership for these goals]]. ESD is explicitly mentioned in Target 4.7 of SDG4, which aims to ensure that all [[Learning|learners]] acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development and is understood as an important means to achieve all the other 16 SDGs (UNESCO, 2017).<ref name="UNESCO" /> Additionally, [[Sustainable Development Goal 17|SDG17]] focuses on strengthening the means of implementation and revitalization of global partnership for sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Goal 17 {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs|url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal17|access-date=2020-09-25|website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref>

== Insubstantial stretching of the term ==
{{Criticism section|date=August 2019}}
{{Essay|section|date=August 2019}}
{{undue weight|section|date=August 2019}}
It has been argued that since the 1960s, the concept of sustainable development has changed from "conservation management" to "economic development", whereby the original meaning of the concept has been stretched somewhat.<ref name=to01/>{{rp|48–54}}

In the 1960s, the international community realised that many African countries needed national plans to safeguard wildlife habitats, and that rural areas had to confront the limits imposed by soil, climate and water availability. This was a strategy of conservation management. In the 1970s, however, the focus shifted to the broader issues of the provisioning of basic human needs, community participation as well as appropriate technology use throughout the developing countries (and not just in Africa). This was a strategy of economic development, and the strategy was carried even further by the [[Brundtland Commission]]'s report on ''[[Our Common Future]]'' when the issues went from regional to international in scope and application.<ref name=to01/>{{rp|48–54}} In effect, the conservationists were crowded out and superseded by the developers.

But shifting the focus of sustainable development from conservation to development has had the imperceptible effect of stretching the original forest management term of [[sustainable yield]] from the use of renewable resources only (like forestry), to now also accounting for the use of non-renewable resources (like [[Natural resource#Classification|minerals]]).<ref name=kt01/>{{rp|13}} This stretching of the term has been questioned. Thus, environmental economist Kerry Turner has argued that literally, there can be no such thing as overall "sustainable development" in an industrialised [[world economy]] that remains heavily dependent on the extraction of earth's finite stock of exhaustible mineral resources: "It makes no sense to talk about the sustainable use of a non-renewable resource (even with substantial recycling effort and reduction in use rates). Any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to exhaustion of the finite stock."<ref name=kt01/>{{rp|13}}

In effect, it has been argued that the industrial revolution as a whole is unsustainable.<ref name=ngr01/>{{rp|20f}}<ref name=jr01/>{{rp|61–67}}<ref name=hd01/>{{rp|22f}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Duncan |first=Richard C. |author-link=Richard C. Duncan |date=2015 |title=The Olduvai Theory. Back to hunting and gathering |url=http://www.thesocialcontract.com/pdf/twentyfive-two/tsc25_2_duncan.pdf |journal=The Social Contract |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=52–54 }}</ref>{{rp|52}}

One critic has argued that the [[Brundtland Commission]] promoted nothing but a business as usual strategy for world development, with the ambiguous and insubstantial concept of "sustainable development" attached as a public relations slogan:<ref name=ap01/>{{rp|94–99}} The report on ''[[Our Common Future]]'' was largely the result of a political bargaining process involving many special interest groups, all put together to create a common appeal of political acceptability across borders. After World War II, the notion of "development" had been established in the West to imply the projection of the American model of society onto the rest of the world. In the 1970s and 1980s, this notion was broadened somewhat to also imply human rights, basic human needs and finally, ecological issues. The emphasis of the report was on helping poor nations out of poverty and meeting the basic needs of their growing populations—as usual. This issue demanded more economic growth, also in the rich countries, who would then import more goods from the poor countries to help them out—as usual. When the discussion switched to [[Steady-state economy#Present background: Exceeding global limits to growth|global ecological limits to growth]], the obvious dilemma was left aside by calling for economic growth with improved resource efficiency, or what was termed "a change in the ''quality'' of growth". However, most countries in the West had experienced such improved resource efficiency since the early-20th century already and as usual; only, this improvement had been more than offset by continuing industrial expansion, to the effect that world resource consumption was now higher than ever before—and these two historical trends were completely ignored in the report. Taken together, the policy of perpetual economic growth for the entire planet remained virtually intact. Since the publication of the report, the ambiguous and insubstantial slogan of "sustainable development" has marched on worldwide.<ref name=ap01/>{{rp|94–99}}


== Society and culture ==
== Society and culture ==

Revision as of 16:49, 26 July 2021

EnvironmentEquitableSustainableBearable (Social ecology)Viable (Environmental economics)EconomicSocial
Scheme of sustainable development:
at the confluence of three constituent parts.

Sustainable development is an

ecosystem services on which the economy and society depend. The desired result is a state of society where living conditions and resources are used to continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural system. Sustainable development can be defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainability goals, such as the current UN-level Sustainable Development Goals
, address the global challenges, including poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice.

While the modern concept of sustainable development is derived mostly from the 1986

sustainable forest management and twentieth-century environmental concerns. As the concept of sustainable development developed, it has shifted its focus more towards the economic development
, social development and environmental protection for future generations.

The concept of sustainable development has been, and still is, subject to criticism, including the question of what is to be sustained in sustainable development. It has been argued that there is no such thing as a sustainable use of a non-renewable resource, since any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to the exhaustion of earth's finite stock;[1]: 13  this perspective renders the Industrial Revolution as a whole unsustainable.[2]: 20f [3]: 61–67 [4]: 22f 

Definition and terminology

Main articles:
History of sustainability
The Blue Marble photograph, taken from Apollo 17 on 7 December 1972, quickly became an icon of environmental conservation.[5]: 7 

Definition

Sustainable development can be defined as the practice of maintaining the productivity by replacing resources used with resources of equal or greater value without degrading or endangering natural biotic systems.

Sustainability Science is the study of the concepts of sustainable development and environmental science. There is an additional focus on the present generations' responsibility to regenerate, maintain and improve planetary resources for use by future generations.[7]
: –8 

Development of the concept

Sustainable development has its roots in ideas about

US Forest Service, whose approach to forest management was driven by the idea of wise use of resources, and Aldo Leopold whose land ethic was influential in the development of the environmental movement in the 1960s.[8][5]

Following the publication of

Limits to Growth, written by a group of scientists led by Dennis and Donella Meadows of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Describing the desirable "state of global equilibrium", the authors wrote: "We are searching for a model output that represents a world system that is sustainable without sudden and uncontrolled collapse and capable of satisfying the basic material requirements of all of its people."[7] That year also saw the publication of the influential A Blueprint for Survival book.[10][11]

Following the Club of Rome report, an MIT research group prepared ten days of hearings on "Growth and Its Implication for the Future" (Roundtable Press, 1973)[12] for the US Congress, the first hearings ever held on sustainable development. William Flynn Martin, David Dodson Gray, and Elizabeth Gray prepared the hearings under the Chairmanship of Congressman John Dingell.[13]

In 1980 the

World Commission on Environment and Development released the report Our Common Future, commonly called the Brundtland Report. The report included what is now one of the most widely recognized definitions of sustainable development.[17][18]

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts:

Since the Brundtland Report, the concept of sustainable development has developed beyond the initial intergenerational framework to focus more on the goal of "socially

UN Conference on Environment and Development published the Earth Charter, which outlines the building of a just, sustainable, and peaceful global society in the 21st century. The action plan Agenda 21 for sustainable development identified information, integration, and participation as key building blocks to help countries achieve development that recognizes these interdependent pillars. It emphasises that in sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of information. It stresses the need to change from old sector-centred ways of doing business to new approaches that involve cross-sectoral co-ordination and the integration of environmental and social concerns into all development processes. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasises that broad public participation in decision making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development.[19]

Under the principles of the

human development such as education, public health, and standard of living.[20]

A 2013 study concluded that sustainability reporting should be reframed through the lens of four interconnected domains: ecology, economics, politics and culture.[21]

Sub-groups

See also: Planetary boundaries and Triple bottom line

Sustainable development can be thought of in terms of three spheres, dimensions, domains or pillars, i.e. the environment, the economy and society. The three-sphere framework was initially proposed by the economist Rene Passet in 1979.[22] It has also been worded as "economic, environmental and social" or "ecology, economy and equity".[23] This has been expanded by some authors to include a fourth pillar of culture, institutions or governance,[23] or alternatively reconfigured as four domains of the social – ecology, economics, politics and culture,[24] thus bringing economics back inside the social, and treating ecology as the intersection of the social and the natural.[25]

Environmental (or ecological)

See also: Ecological engineering
Graph comparing the Ecological Footprint of different nations with their Human Development Index
Relationship between ecological footprint and Human Development Index (HDI)

The

ecosystem services can be a powerful and transformative force for sustainable development which, in this sense, extends to all species.[28]

Environmental sustainability concerns the

adaptation and mitigation.[29] Environmental sustainability requires society to design activities to meet human needs while preserving the life support systems of the planet. This, for example, entails using water sustainably, using renewable energy, and sustainable material supplies (e.g. harvesting wood from forests at a rate that maintains the biomass and biodiversity).[30]

An unsustainable situation occurs when natural capital (the total of nature's resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished. Sustainability requires that human activity only uses nature's resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. Inherently the concept of sustainable development is intertwined with the concept of carrying capacity. Theoretically, the long-term result of environmental degradation is the inability to sustain human life. Such degradation on a global scale should imply an increase in human death rate until population falls to what the degraded environment can support. If the degradation continues beyond a certain tipping point or critical threshold it would lead to eventual extinction for humanity.[citation needed]

Consumption of natural resources State of the environment Sustainability
More than nature's ability to replenish Environmental degradation Not sustainable
Equal to nature's ability to replenish Environmental equilibrium
Steady state economy
Less than nature's ability to replenish Environmental renewal Environmentally sustainable

Integral elements for a sustainable development are research and innovation activities. A telling example is the

Horizon 2020, which is also open to participation worldwide.[31] A promising direction towards sustainable development is to design systems that are flexible and reversible.[32][33]

Pollution of the public resources is not a different action, it is just a reverse tragedy of the commons, in that instead of taking something out, something is put into the commons. When the costs of polluting the commons are not calculated into the cost of the items consumed, then it becomes only natural to pollute, as the cost of pollution is external to the cost of the goods produced and the cost of cleaning the waste before it is discharged exceeds the cost of releasing the waste directly into the commons. So, the only way to solve this problem is by protecting the ecology of the commons by making it, through taxes or fines, more costly to release the waste directly into the commons than would be the cost of cleaning the waste before discharge.[34]

Agriculture

See also: Sustainable agriculture

Sustainable agriculture consists of

environment friendly methods of farming that allow the production of crops or livestock without damage to human or natural systems. It involves preventing adverse effects to soil, water, biodiversity, surrounding or downstream resources—as well as to those working or living on the farm or in neighbouring areas. The concept of sustainable agriculture extends intergenerationally, passing on a conserved or improved natural resource, biotic, and economic base rather than one which has been depleted or polluted.[35] Elements of sustainable agriculture include permaculture, agroforestry, mixed farming, multiple cropping, and crop rotation.[36] It involves agricultural methods that do not undermine the environment, smart farming technologies that enhance a quality environment for humans to thrive and reclaiming and transforming deserts into farmlands(Herman Daly, 2017). [citation needed
]

Numerous

Fair Trade, UTZ Certified, GlobalGAP, Bird Friendly, and the Common Code for the Coffee Community (4C).[37][38] These standards specify rules that producers , manufacturers and traders need to follow so that the things they make, grow or do don’t hurt people and the environment.[39] According to the ITC Standards Map, the mostly covered sector by sustainability standards is the agricultural sector.[40]

Economics

Part of a series on
Ecological economics
Humanity's economic system viewed as a subsystem of the global environment
Concepts
People

Organizations:

Works
Related topics
A sewage treatment plant that uses solar energy, located at Santuari de Lluc monastery, Majorca.
See also: Ecological economics

It has been suggested that because of rural poverty and overexploitation, environmental resources should be treated as important economic assets, called natural capital.[41] Economic development has traditionally required a growth in the gross domestic product. This model of unlimited personal and GDP growth may be over. Sustainable development may involve improvements in the quality of life for many but may necessitate a decrease in resource consumption.[42] According to ecological economist

irreversibility of environmental change, uncertainty of long-term outcomes, and sustainable development guide ecological economic analysis and valuation.[43]

As early as the 1970s, the concept of sustainability was used to describe an economy "in equilibrium with basic ecological support systems".[44] Scientists in many fields have highlighted The Limits to Growth,[45][46] and economists have presented alternatives, for example a 'steady-state economy', to address concerns over the impacts of expanding human development on the planet.[4] In 1987 the economist Edward Barbier published the study The Concept of Sustainable Economic Development, where he recognised that goals of environmental conservation and economic development are not conflicting and can be reinforcing each other.[47]

A World Bank study from 1999 concluded that based on the theory of genuine savings, policymakers have many possible interventions to increase sustainability, in macroeconomics or purely environmental.[48] Several studies have noted that efficient policies for renewable energy and pollution are compatible with increasing human welfare, eventually reaching a golden-rule steady state.[49][50][51][52]

The study, Interpreting Sustainability in Economic Terms, found three pillars of sustainable development, interlinkage, intergenerational equity, and dynamic efficiency.[53]

But Gilbert Rist points out that the World Bank has twisted the notion of sustainable development to prove that economic development need not be deterred in the interest of preserving the ecosystem. He writes: "From this angle, 'sustainable development' looks like a cover-up operation. ... The thing that is meant to be sustained is really 'development', not the tolerance capacity of the ecosystem or of human societies."[54]

The World Bank, a leading producer of environmental knowledge, continues to advocate the win-win prospects for economic growth and ecological stability even as its economists express their doubts.[55] Herman Daly, an economist for the Bank from 1988 to 1994, writes:

When authors of WDR '92 [the highly influential 1992 World Development Report that featured the environment] were drafting the report, they called me asking for examples of "win-win" strategies in my work. What could I say? None exists in that pure form; there are trade-offs, not "win-wins." But they want to see a world of "win-wins" based on articles of faith, not fact. I wanted to contribute because WDRs are important in the Bank, [because] task managers read [them] to find philosophical justification for their latest round of projects. But they did not want to hear about how things really are, or what I find in my work...[56]

A meta review in 2002 looked at environmental and economic valuations and found a lack of "sustainability policies".[57] A study in 2004 asked if we consume too much.[58] A study concluded in 2007 that knowledge, manufactured and human capital (health and education) has not compensated for the degradation of natural capital in many parts of the world.[59] It has been suggested that intergenerational equity can be incorporated into a sustainable development and decision making, as has become common in economic valuations of climate economics.[60] A meta review in 2009 identified conditions for a strong case to act on climate change, and called for more work to fully account of the relevant economics and how it affects human welfare.[61] According to free-market environmentalist John Baden "the improvement of environment quality depends on the market economy and the existence of legitimate and protected property rights". They enable the effective practice of personal responsibility and the development of mechanisms to protect the environment. The State can in this context "create conditions which encourage the people to save the environment".[62]

Misum, Mistra Center for Sustainable Markets, based at Stockholm School of Economics, aims to provide policy research and advice to Swedish and international actors on Sustainable Markets. Misum is a cross-disciplinary and multi-stakeholder knowledge centre dedicated to sustainability and sustainable markets and contains three research platforms: Sustainability in Financial Markets (Mistra Financial Systems), Sustainability in Production and Consumption and Sustainable Socio-Economic Development.[63]

Environmental economics

Main article: Environmental economics

The total environment includes not just the biosphere of earth, air, and water, but also human interactions with these things, with nature, and what humans have created as their surroundings.[64]

As countries around the world continue to advance economically, they put a strain on the ability of the natural environment to absorb the high level of pollutants that are created as a part of this economic growth. Therefore, solutions need to be found so that the economies of the world can continue to grow, but not at the expense of the public good. In the world of economics, the amount of environmental quality must be considered as limited in supply and therefore is treated as a scarce resource. This is a resource to be protected. One common way to analyze possible outcomes of policy decisions on the scarce resource is to do a cost-benefit analysis.[citation needed] This type of analysis contrasts different options of resource allocation and, based on an evaluation of the expected courses of action and the consequences of these actions, the optimal way to do so in the light of different policy goals can be elicited.[65]

The benefit-cost analysis basically can look at several ways of solving a problem and then assigning the best route for a solution, based on the set of consequences that would result from the further development of the individual courses of action, and then choosing the course of action that results in the least amount of damage to the expected outcome for the environmental quality that remains after that development or process takes place. Further complicating this analysis are the interrelationships of the various parts of the environment that might be impacted by the chosen course of action. Sometimes it is almost impossible to predict the various outcomes of a course of action, due to the unexpected consequences and the number of unknowns that are not accounted for in the benefit-cost analysis.[66]

Energy

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable energy.[edit]

Energy is sustainable if it "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."[67][68] Definitions of sustainable energy usually look at its effects on the environment, the economy, and society. These impacts range from greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution to energy poverty and toxic waste. Renewable energy sources such as wind, hydro, solar, and geothermal energy can cause environmental damage, but are generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel sources.

The role of non-renewable energy sources in sustainable energy is controversial.

not produce carbon pollution or air pollution, but has drawbacks that include radioactive waste, the risk of nuclear proliferation, and the risk of accidents. Switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower climate impact, but may lead to a delay in switching to more sustainable options. Carbon capture and storage can be built into power plants to remove their carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented.

Fossil fuels provide 85% of the world's energy consumption, and the energy system is responsible for 76% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Around 790 million people in developing countries lack access to electricity, and 2.6 billion rely on polluting fuels such as wood or charcoal to cook. Cooking with biomass plus fossil fuel pollution causes an estimated 7 million deaths each year. Limiting global warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F) will require transforming energy production, distribution, storage, and consumption. Universal access to clean electricity can have major benefits to the climate, human health, and the economies of developing countries.

Technology

See also: Appropriate technology, Environmental engineering, and Environmental technology

One of the core concepts in sustainable development is that technology can be used to assist people to meet their developmental needs. Technology to meet these sustainable development needs is often referred to as

ethical and legal underpinnings of these projects as Four Essential Freedoms of Free Software
.

Transport

See also: Sustainable transport
Carbon Emissions Per Passenger
Overall GHG from Transport

Transportation is a large contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. It is said that one-third of all gases produced are due to transportation.[74] Motorized transport also releases exhaust fumes that contain particulate matter which is hazardous to human health and a contributor to climate change.[75]

Sustainable transport has many social and economic benefits that can accelerate local sustainable development. According to a series of reports by the

Low Emission Development Strategies Global Partnership (LEDS GP), sustainable transport can help create jobs,[76] improve commuter safety through investment in bicycle lanes and pedestrian pathways,[77] make access to employment and social opportunities more affordable and efficient. It also offers a practical opportunity to save people's time and household income as well as government budgets,[78]
making investment in sustainable transport a 'win-win' opportunity.

Some Western countries are making transportation more sustainable in both long-term and short-term implementations.[79] An example is the modification in available transportation in Freiburg, Germany. The city has implemented extensive methods of public transportation, cycling, and walking, along with large areas where cars are not allowed.[74]

Since many Western countries are highly automobile-oriented, the main transit that people use is personal vehicles. About 80% of their travel involves cars.

greenhouse gases
emitters in the United States. The federal government has to come up with some plans to reduce the total number of vehicle trips to lower greenhouse gases emission. Such as:

  • Improve public transport through the provision of larger coverage area in order to provide more mobility and accessibility, new technology to provide a more reliable and responsive public transportation network.[80]
  • Encourage walking and biking through the provision of wider pedestrian pathway, bike share stations in downtowns, locate parking lots far from the shopping center, limit on street parking, slower traffic lane in downtown area.
  • Increase the cost of car ownership and gas taxes through increased parking fees and tolls, encouraging people to drive more fuel efficient vehicles. This can produce a social equity problem, since lower income people usually drive older vehicles with lower fuel efficiency. Government can use the extra revenue collected from taxes and tolls to improve public transportation and benefit poor communities.[81]

Other states and nations have built efforts to

sustainable transportation policies.[82]

Business

See also: Corporate sustainability

The most broadly accepted criterion for corporate sustainability constitutes a firm's efficient use of natural capital.[citation needed] This eco-efficiency is usually calculated as the economic value added by a firm in relation to its aggregated ecological impact.[83] This idea has been popularised by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) under the following definition: "Eco-efficiency is achieved by the delivery of competitively priced goods and services that satisfy human needs and bring quality of life, while progressively reducing ecological impacts and resource intensity throughout the life-cycle to a level at least in line with the earth's carrying capacity" (DeSimone and Popoff, 1997: 47).[84]

Similar to the eco-efficiency concept but so far less explored is the second criterion for corporate sustainability. Socio-efficiency[85] describes the relation between a firm's value added and its social impact. Whereas, it can be assumed that most corporate impacts on the environment are negative (apart from rare exceptions such as the planting of trees) this is not true for social impacts. These can be either positive (e.g. corporate giving, creation of employment) or negative (e.g. work accidents, mobbing of employees, human rights abuses). Depending on the type of impact socio-efficiency thus either tries to minimise negative social impacts (i.e. accidents per value added) or maximise positive social impacts (i.e. donations per value added) in relation to the value added.[citation needed]

Both eco-efficiency and socio-efficiency are concerned primarily with increasing economic sustainability. In this process they instrumentalise both natural and social capital aiming to benefit from win-win situations. However, as Dyllick and Hockerts[85] point out the business case alone will not be sufficient to realise sustainable development. They point towards eco-effectiveness, socio-effectiveness, sufficiency, and eco-equity as four criteria that need to be met if sustainable development is to be reached.[86]

Income

Sustainable development can reduce poverty. Sustainable development reduces poverty through financial (among other things, a balanced budget), environmental (living conditions), and social (including equality of income) means.[87]

Architecture and construction

See also: Sustainable architecture and Green building

In sustainable architecture the recent movements of

International Style architecture, as well as opposing to solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl, with long commuting distances and large ecological footprints.[90]

The global design and construction industry is responsible for approximately 39 percent of greenhouse gas emissions.[91] Green building practices that avoid emissions or capture the carbon already present in the environment, allow for reduced footprint of the construction industry, for example, use of hempcrete, cellulose fiber insulation, and landscaping.[92]

Politics

See also: Environmental politics, Environmental governance, and Sustainability metrics and indices

A study concluded that social indicators and, therefore, sustainable development indicators, are scientific constructs whose principal objective is to inform public policy-making.[93] The International Institute for Sustainable Development has similarly developed a political policy framework, linked to a sustainability index for establishing measurable entities and metrics. The framework consists of six core areas:

  1. International trade and investment
  2. Economic policy
  3. Climate change and energy
  4. Measurement and assessment
  5. Natural resource management
  6. Communication technologies.

The United Nations Global Compact Cities Programme has defined sustainable political development in a way that broadens the usual definition beyond states and governance. The political is defined as the domain of practices and meanings associated with basic issues of social power as they pertain to the organisation, authorisation, legitimation and regulation of a social life held in common. This definition is in accord with the view that political change is important for responding to economic, ecological and cultural challenges. It also means that the politics of economic change can be addressed. They have listed seven subdomains of the domain of politics:[94]

  1. Organization and governance
  2. Law and justice
  3. Communication and critique
  4. Representation and negotiation
  5. Security and accord
  6. Dialogue and reconciliation
  7. Ethics and accountability

This accords with the Brundtland Commission emphasis on development that is guided by human rights principles (see above).

Culture

Framing of sustainable development progress according to the Circles of Sustainability, used by the United Nations.

Working with a different emphasis, some researchers and institutions have pointed out that a fourth dimension should be added to the dimensions of sustainable development, since the triple-bottom-line dimensions of economic, environmental and social do not seem to be enough to reflect the complexity of contemporary society. In this context, the

Agenda 21 for culture and the United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) Executive Bureau lead the preparation of the policy statement "Culture: Fourth Pillar of Sustainable Development", passed on 17 November 2010, in the framework of the World Summit of Local and Regional Leaders – 3rd World Congress of UCLG, held in Mexico City. This document inaugurates a new perspective and points to the relation between culture and sustainable development through a dual approach: developing a solid cultural policy and advocating a cultural dimension in all public policies. The Circles of Sustainability approach distinguishes the four domains of economic, ecological, political and cultural sustainability.[95][96][97]

Other organizations have also supported the idea of a fourth domain of sustainable development. The Network of Excellence "Sustainable Development in a Diverse World",

Neo-Futurism, whose name was inspired by the 1987 United Nations' report Our Common Future. The Circles of Sustainability approach used by Metropolis defines the (fourth) cultural domain as practices, discourses, and material expressions, which, over time, express continuities and discontinuities of social meaning.[94]

Cultural elements in sustainable development frameworks

Recently, human-centered design and cultural collaboration have been popular frameworks for sustainable development in marginalized communities.

Articulation Theory in co-designing. This allows for them to understand each other's thought process and their comprehension of the sustainable projects.[100] By using the method of co-design, the beneficiaries' holistic needs are being considered.[100][102] Final decisions and implementations are made with respect to sociocultural and ecological factors.[103][102][101][100]

Human centered design
Wikimania Human Centered Design Visualization

The user-oriented framework relies heavily on user participation and user feedback in the planning process.[104] Users are able to provide new perspective and ideas, which can be considered in a new round of improvements and changes.[104] It is said that increased user participation in the design process can garner a more comprehensive understanding of the design issues, due to more contextual and emotional transparency between researcher and participant.[104] A key element of human centered design is applied ethnography, which was a research method adopted from cultural anthropology.[104] This research method requires researchers to be fully immersed in the observation so that implicit details are also recorded.[104]

Life cycle analysis
SDLC-Maintenance-Highlighted

Many communities express environmental concerns, so life cycle analysis is often conducted when assessing the sustainability of a product or prototype.[105][102][100] The assessment is done in stages with meticulous cycles of planning, design, implementation, and evaluation.[106] The decision to choose materials is heavily weighted on its longevity, renewability, and efficiency. These factors ensure that researchers are conscious of community values that align with positive environmental, social, and economic impacts.[105]

Themes

Progress

See also:
Sustainable development goals

The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD; also known as Rio 2012) was the third international conference on sustainable development, which aimed at reconciling the economic and environmental goals of the global community. An outcome of this conference was the development of the Sustainable Development Goals that aim to promote sustainable progress and eliminate inequalities around the world. However, few nations met the World Wide Fund for Nature's definition of sustainable development criteria established in 2006.[107] Although some nations are more developed than others, all nations are constantly developing because each nation struggles with perpetuating disparities, inequalities and unequal access to fundamental rights and freedoms.[108]

Measurement

Main articles: Ecological footprint and Sustainability measurement
Deforestation in Europe.
Deforestation in Bolivia.

In 2007 a report for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency stated: "While much discussion and effort has gone into sustainability indicators, none of the resulting systems clearly tells us whether our society is sustainable. At best, they can tell us that we are heading in the wrong direction, or that our current activities are not sustainable. More often, they simply draw our attention to the existence of problems, doing little to tell us the origin of those problems and nothing to tell us how to solve them."[109]

Most recently, a paper about monitoring urban water sustainability published in the Journal of Environmental Management [110] argued that sustainable development is being reconsidered as a process with unknown endpoint. The paper explains that outputs of sustainable urban water systems defined as ‘policies, projects, laws, technologies, and consumption and reuse amounts associated with urban water sustainability goals’ are therefore being viewed as inadequate monitoring instruments. The article proposes a new methodology for sustainability monitoring whereby normality of a system is diagnosed through normality of its supporting inputs in lieu of normality of its complex outputs. Supporting inputs are ‘intents and behaviors that support system goals’. Supporting inputs follow a principle of self-organization to remain in the norm and behavior zone commonly associated with system goals. This implies that normality of supporting inputs can be inferred from their longitudinally normal or Gaussian distribution that can be explored by significance tests. The article identifies fourteen supporting inputs of sustainable urban water systems - such as internet searches, community campaigns, staff training, agent-principal reporting and legislation propositions about water sustainability – and defines quantitative indicators for them. The Shapiro-Wilk test and Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (K–S) of these indicators and a subsequent Boxplot outlying examination of non-normal indicators are undertaken in a case study. Qualitative examination of non-normal supporting inputs confirms the ability of this statistical methodology to detect problems in the system.[110]

Nevertheless, a majority of authors assume that a set of well defined and harmonised indicators is the only way to make sustainability tangible. Those indicators are expected to be identified and adjusted through empirical observations (trial and error).[111]

The most common critiques are related to issues like data quality, comparability, objective function and the necessary resources.[112] However a more general criticism is coming from the project management community: How can a sustainable development be achieved at global level if we cannot monitor it in any single project?[113][114]

The Cuban-born researcher and entrepreneur Sonia Bueno suggests an alternative approach that is based upon the integral, long-term cost-benefit relationship as a measure and monitoring tool for the sustainability of every project, activity or enterprise.[115][116] Furthermore, this concept aims to be a practical guideline towards sustainable development following the principle of conservation and increment of value rather than restricting the consumption of resources.[citation needed]

Reasonable qualifications of sustainability are seen U.S. Green Building Council's (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). This design incorporates some ecological, economic, and social elements. The goals presented by LEED design goals are sustainable sites, water efficiency, energy consumption and atmospheric emission reduction, material and resource efficiency, and indoor environmental quality. Although the amount of structures for sustainability development is many, these qualification has become a standard for sustainable building.[citation needed]

There are also numerous reports that critically examine the development of the implementation of the 2030 Agenda and the related path towards sustainable development.[117]

Natural capital

rain forest
in France.

The sustainable development debate is based on the assumption that societies need to manage three types of capital (economic, social, and natural), which may be non-substitutable and whose consumption might be irreversible.[85] Leading ecological economist and steady-state theorist Herman Daly,[4] for example, points to the fact that natural capital can not necessarily be substituted by economic capital. While it is possible that we can find ways to replace some natural resources, it is much more unlikely that they will ever be able to replace eco-system services, such as the protection provided by the ozone layer, or the climate stabilizing function of the Amazonian forest. In fact natural capital, social capital and economic capital are often complementarities. A further obstacle to substitutability lies also in the multi-functionality of many natural resources. Forests, for example, not only provide the raw material for paper (which can be substituted quite easily), but they also maintain biodiversity, regulate water flow, and absorb CO2.[citation needed]

Another problem of natural and social capital deterioration lies in their partial irreversibility. The loss of biodiversity, for example, is often definitive. The same can be true for cultural diversity. For example, with globalisation advancing quickly the number of indigenous languages is dropping at alarming rates. Moreover, the depletion of natural and social capital may have non-linear consequences. Consumption of natural and social capital may have no observable impact until a certain threshold is reached. A lake can, for example, absorb nutrients for a long time while actually increasing its productivity. However, once a certain level of algae is reached lack of oxygen causes the lake's ecosystem to break down suddenly.[118]

Business-as-usual

Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the air-polluting emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

If the degradation of natural and social capital has such important consequence the question arises why action is not taken more systematically to alleviate it. Cohen and Winn[119] point to four types of market failure as possible explanations: First, while the benefits of natural or social capital depletion can usually be privatised, the costs are often externalised (i.e. they are borne not by the party responsible but by society in general). Second, natural capital is often undervalued by society since we are not fully aware of the real cost of the depletion of natural capital. Information asymmetry is a third reason—often the link between cause and effect is obscured, making it difficult for actors to make informed choices. Cohen and Winn close with the realization that contrary to economic theory many firms are not perfect optimisers. They postulate that firms often do not optimise resource allocation because they are caught in a "business as usual" mentality.[citation needed]

Education

Main page:

Education for sustainable development

Education must be revisited in light of a renewed vision of sustainable human and social development that is both equitable and viable. This vision of sustainability must take into consideration the social, environmental and economic dimensions of human development and the various ways in which these relate to education: 'An empowering education is one that builds the human resources we need to be productive, to continue to learn, to solve problems, to be creative, and to live together and with nature in peace and harmony. When nations ensure that such an education is accessible to all throughout their lives, a quiet revolution is set in motion: education becomes the engine of sustainable development and the key to a better world.'[120][121]

Education for sustainable development

Education for sustainable development (ESD) is defined as education that encourages changes in knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes to enable a more sustainable and equitable society. ESD aims to empower and equip current and future generations to meet the needs using a balanced and integrated approach to the economic, social and

environmental dimensions of sustainable development.[122]

The concept of ESD was born from the need for education to address the growing and changing environmental challenges facing the

learning institutions. Empowered youth and local communities interacting with education institutions become key actors in advancing sustainable development.[122]

UN Decade for Education for Sustainable Development

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

The launch of the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2014) started a global movement to reorient education to address the challenges of sustainable development. Building on the achievement of the Decade, stated in the Aichi-Nagoya Declaration on ESD,

ESD are promoted through formal, non-formal and informal education.[123]

International recognition of ESD as the key enabler for sustainable development is growing steadily. The role of ESD was recognized in three major UN summits on sustainable development: the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa; and the 2012 UN Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) in Rio de Janeiro. Other key global agreements such as the Paris Agreement (Article 12) also recognize the importance of ESD. Today, ESD is arguably at the heart of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (United Nations, 2015). The SDGs recognize that all countries must stimulate action in the following key areas – people, planet, prosperity, peace and partnership – to tackle the global challenges that are crucial for the survival of humanity. Some of these SDGs include ensuring affordable and clean energy, providing clean water and sanitation, and partnership for these goals. ESD is explicitly mentioned in Target 4.7 of SDG4, which aims to ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development and is understood as an important means to achieve all the other 16 SDGs (UNESCO, 2017).[122] Additionally, SDG17 focuses on strengthening the means of implementation and revitalization of global partnership for sustainable development.[124]

Society and culture

Country examples

According to the data that member countries represented to the United Nations, Cuba was the only country in the world in 2006 that met the World Wide Fund for Nature's definition of sustainable development, with an ecological footprint of less than 1.8 hectares per capita, 1.5, and a Human Development Index of over 0.8, 0.855.[125][126]

See also

Sources

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Rethinking Education: Towards a global common good?​, 32–33, UNESCO. UNESCO.

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA (license statement/permission). Text taken from Issues and trends in education for sustainable development​, 276, UNESCO. UNESDOC.

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