Sustainable transport
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Sustainable transport refers to ways of
Sustainable transport systems make a positive contribution to the environmental, social and economic sustainability of the communities they serve. Transport systems exist to provide social and economic connections, and people quickly take up the opportunities offered by increased
The
The social costs of transport include road crashes, air pollution, physical inactivity,
Definition
The term sustainable transport came into use as a logical follow-on from sustainable development, and is used to describe modes of transport, and systems of transport planning, which are consistent with wider concerns of sustainability. There are many definitions of the sustainable transport, and of the related terms sustainable transportation and sustainable mobility.[17] One such definition, from the European Union Council of Ministers of Transport, defines a sustainable transportation system as one that:
- Allows the basic access and development needs of individuals, companies and society to be met safely and in a manner consistent with human and ecosystem health, and promotes equity within and between successive generations.
- Is affordable, operates fairly and efficiently, offers a choice of transport mode, and supports a competitive economy, as well as balanced regional development.
- Limits emissions and waste within the planet's ability to absorb them, uses renewable resources at or below their rates of generation, and uses non-renewable resources at or below the rates of development of renewable substitutes, while minimizing the impact on the use of land and the generation of noise.
Sustainability extends beyond just the operating efficiency and emissions. A life-cycle assessment involves production, use and post-use considerations. A cradle-to-cradle design is more important than a focus on a single factor such as energy efficiency.[18][19]
Benefits
Sustainable transport has many social and economic benefits that can accelerate local sustainable development. According to a series of serious reports by the
Environmental impact
Transport systems are major emitters of greenhouse gases, responsible for 23% of world energy-related GHG emissions in 2004, with about three-quarters coming from road vehicles. Data from 2011 stated that one-third of all greenhouse gases produced are due to transportation.[24] Currently 95% of transport energy comes from petroleum.[6] Energy is consumed in the manufacture as well as the use of vehicles, and is embodied in transport infrastructure including roads, bridges and railways.[25] Motorized transport also releases exhaust fumes that contain particulate matter which is hazardous to human health and a contributor to climate change.[26]
The first historical attempts of evaluating the Life Cycle environmental impact of vehicle is due to
The
Green vehicles are intended to have less environmental impact than equivalent standard vehicles, although when the environmental impact of a vehicle is assessed over the whole of its life cycle this may not be the case.[33]
Electric vehicle technology significantly reduces transport CO2 emissions when comparing battery electric vehicles (BEVs) with equivalent internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs).[34] The extent to which it does this depends on the embodied energy of the vehicle and the source of the electricity.[34] Lifecycle greenhouse gas emission reductions from BEVs are significant, even in countries with relatively high shares of coal in their electricity generation mix, such as China and India.[34][35] As a specific example, a Nissan Leaf in the UK in 2019 produced one third of the greenhouse gases than the average internal combustion car.[36]
The Online Electric Vehicle (OLEV), developed by the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), is an electric vehicle that can be charged while stationary or driving, thus removing the need to stop at a charging station. The City of Gumi in South Korea runs a 24 km roundtrip along which the bus will receive 100 kW (136 horsepower) electricity at an 85% maximum power transmission efficiency rate while maintaining a 17 cm air gap between the underbody of the vehicle and the road surface. At that power, only a few sections of the road need embedded cables.[38] Hybrid vehicles, which use an internal combustion engine combined with an electric engine to achieve better fuel efficiency than a regular combustion engine, are already common.
Natural gas is also used as a transport fuel, but is a less promising technology as it is still a fossil fuel and still has significant emissions (though lower than gasoline, diesel, etc.).
Brazil met 17% of its transport fuel needs from bioethanol in 2007, but the OECD has warned that the success of (first-generation) biofuels in Brazil is due to specific local circumstances. Internationally, first-generation biofuels are forecast to have little or no impact on greenhouse emissions, at significantly higher cost than energy efficiency measures.[39] The later generation biofuels however (2nd to 4th generation) do have significant environmental benefit, as they are no driving force for deforestation or struggle with the
In practice there is a sliding scale of green transport depending on the sustainability of the option. Green vehicles are more
Transport on rails boasts an excellent efficiency (see
Transport and social sustainability
Cities with overbuilt roadways have experienced unintended consequences, linked to radical drops in public transport, walking, and cycling. In many cases, streets became void of "life." Stores, schools, government centers and libraries moved away from central cities, and residents who did not flee to the suburbs experienced a much reduced quality of public space and of public services. As schools were closed their mega-school replacements in outlying areas generated additional traffic; the number of cars on US roads between 7:15 and 8:15 a.m. increases 30% during the school year.[41]
Yet another impact was an increase in sedentary lifestyles, causing and complicating a national epidemic of obesity, and accompanying dramatically increased health care costs.[14][42]
Car-based transport systems present barriers to employment in low-income neighbourhoods,[43] with many low-income individuals and families forced to run cars they cannot afford to maintain their income.[44]
Potential shift to sustainable transport in developing countries
In developing countries such as Uganda, researchers have sought to determine factors that could possibly influence travelers to opt for bicycles as an alternative to motorcycle taxis (Bodaboda). The findings suggest that generally, the age, gender, and ability of the individual to cycle in the first place are key determinants of their willingness to shift to a more sustainable mode. Transport system improvements that could reduce the perceived risks of cycling were also seen to be the most impactful changes that could contribute towards the greater use of bicycles.[45]
Cities
Cities are shaped by their transport systems. In The City in History, Lewis Mumford documented how the location and layout of cities was shaped around a walkable center, often located near a port or waterway, and with suburbs accessible by animal transport or, later, by rail or tram lines.
In 1939, the New York World's Fair included a model of an imagined city, built around a car-based transport system. In this "greater and better world of tomorrow", residential, commercial and industrial areas were separated, and skyscrapers loomed over a network of urban motorways. These ideas captured the popular imagination, and are credited with influencing city planning from the 1940s to the 1970s.[46]
The popularity of the car in the post-war era led to major changes in the structure and function of cities.[47] There was some opposition to these changes at the time. The writings of Jane Jacobs, in particular The Death and Life of Great American Cities provide a poignant reminder of what was lost in this transformation, and a record of community efforts to resist these changes. Lewis Mumford asked "is the city for cars or for people?"[48] Donald Appleyard documented the consequences for communities of increasing car traffic in "The View from the Road" (1964) and in the UK, Mayer Hillman first published research into the impacts of traffic on child independent mobility in 1971.[49] Despite these notes of caution, trends in car ownership,[50] car use and fuel consumption continued steeply upward throughout the post-war period.
Mainstream transport planning in Europe has, by contrast, never been based on assumptions that the private car was the best or only solution for urban mobility. For example, the
There are major differences in transport energy consumption between cities; an average U.S. urban dweller uses 24 times more energy annually for private transport than a Chinese urban resident, and almost four times as much as a European urban dweller. These differences cannot be explained by wealth alone but are closely linked to the rates of walking, cycling, and public transport use and to enduring features of the city including urban density and urban design.[52]
The cities and nations that have invested most heavily in car-based transport systems are now the least environmentally sustainable, as measured by per capita
The
The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group (C40) is a group of 94 cities around the world driving urban action that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks, while increasing the health and wellbeing of urban citizens. In October 2019, by signing the C40 Clean Air Cities Declaration, 35 mayors recognized that breathing clean air is a human right and committed to work together to form a global coalition for clean air.[58] Papers have been written showing with satellite data that cities with subway systems produce much less greenhouse gas.[59]
Policies and governance
By country
United Kingdom
In 2021 the Institute for Public Policy Research issued a statement saying that car use in the United Kingdom must shrink while active transport and public transport should be used more. The Department for Transport responded that they will spend 2 billion pounds on active transport, more than ever, including making England and the rest of the UK's railways greener.[60] UK studies have shown that a modal shift to rail from air could result in a sixty fold reduction in CO2 emissions.[61]
Germany
Some Western countries are making transportation more sustainable in both long-term and short-term implementations.[62] An example is the modification in available transportation in Freiburg, Germany. The city has implemented extensive methods of public transportation, cycling, and walking, along with large areas where cars are not allowed.[24]
United States
Since many Western countries are highly automobile-oriented, the main transit that people use is personal vehicles. About 80% of their travel involves cars.
- Improve public transport through the provision of larger coverage area in order to provide more mobility and accessibility, new technology to provide a more reliable and responsive public transportation network.[63]
- Encourage walking and biking through the provision of wider pedestrian pathway, bike share stations in downtowns, locate parking lots far from the shopping center, limit on street parking, slower traffic lane in downtown area.
- Increase the cost of car ownership and gas taxes through increased parking fees and tolls, encouraging people to drive more fuel efficient vehicles. This can produce a social equity problem, since lower income people usually drive older vehicles with lower fuel efficiency. Government can use the extra revenue collected from taxes and tolls to improve public transportation and benefit poor communities.[64]
Other states and nations have built efforts to
France
In March 2022, an advertising regulation will come into force in France, requiring all advertising materials for automobiles to include one of three standard disclaimers promoting the use of sustainable transport practices. This applies to all vehicles, including electric vehicles. In 2028, it will also become illegal to advertise vehicles which emit more than 128 grams of carbon dioxide per-kilometre.[66][67]
At city level
Sustainable transport policies have their greatest impact at the city level.
Some of the biggest cities in Western Europe have a relatively sustainable transport. In
Outside Western Europe, cities which have consistently included sustainability as a key consideration in transport and land use planning include
Many other cities throughout the world have recognized the need to link sustainability and transport policies, for example by joining the Cities for Climate Protection program.[72] Some cities are trying to become car-free cities, e.g., limit or exclude the usage of cars.[73]
In 2020, the
Community and grassroots action
Sustainable transport is fundamentally a grassroots movement, albeit one which is now recognized as of citywide, national and international significance.
Whereas it started as a movement driven by environmental concerns, over these last years there has been increased emphasis on social equity and fairness issues, and in particular the need to ensure proper access and services for lower income groups and people with mobility limitations, including the fast-growing population of older citizens. Many of the people exposed to the most vehicle noise, pollution and safety risk have been those who do not own, or cannot drive cars, and those for whom the cost of car ownership causes a severe financial burden.[81]
An organization called
At the beginning of the 21st century, some companies are trying to increase the use of sailing ships, even for commercial purposes, for example, Fairtrannsport and[83] New Dawn Traders[84] They have created the Sail Cargo Alliance.[85]
The European Investment Bank committed €314 million between 2018 and 2022 to green marine transport, funding the building of new ships and the retrofitting of current ships with eco-friendly technologies to increase their energy efficiency and lower harmful emissions.[86][87] The Bank also offered an average of €11 billion per year from 2012 to 2022 for sustainable transportation solutions and climate-friendly initiatives. In 2022, railway projects received around 32% of overall transport loans, while urban mobility received approximately 37%.[88][89]
Recent trends
Car travel increased steadily throughout the twentieth century, but trends since 2000 have been more complex. Oil price rises from 2003 have been linked to a decline in per capita fuel use for private vehicle travel in the US,[92] Britain and Australia. In 2008, global oil consumption fell by 0.8% overall, with significant declines in consumption in North America, Western Europe, and parts of Asia.[93]
Other factors affecting a decline in driving, at least in America, include the retirement of
Greenwashing
The term green transport is often used as a
Tools and incentives
Several European countries are opening up financial incentives that support more sustainable modes of transport. The European Cyclists' Federation, which focuses on daily cycling for transport, has created a document containing a non-complete overview.[98] In the UK, employers have for many years been providing employees with financial incentives. The employee leases or borrows a bike that the employer has purchased. You can also get other support. The scheme is beneficial for the employee who saves money and gets an incentive to get exercise integrated in the daily routine. The employer can expect a tax deduction, lower sick leave and less pressure on parking spaces for cars.[99][100] Since 2010, there has been a scheme in Iceland (Samgöngugreiðslur) where those who do not drive a car to work, get paid a lump of money monthly. An employee must sign a statement not to use a car for work more often than one day a week, or 20% of the days for a period. Some employers pay fixed amounts based on trust. Other employers reimburse the expenses for repairs on bicycles, period-tickets for public transport and the like. Since 2013, amounts up to ISK 8000 per month have been tax-free. Most major workplaces offer this, and a significant proportion of employees use the scheme. Since 2019 half the amount is tax-free if the employee signs a contract not to use a car to work for more than 40% of the days of the contract period.[101][102]
Possible measures for urban transport
The
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History
Most of the tools and concepts of sustainable transport were developed before the phrase was coined. Walking, the first mode of transport, is also the most sustainable.[104] Public transport dates back at least as far as the invention of the public bus by Blaise Pascal in 1662.[105] The first passenger tram began operation in 1807 and the first passenger rail service in 1825. Pedal bicycles date from the 1860s. These were the only personal transport choices available to most people in Western countries prior to World War II, and remain the only options for most people in the developing world. Freight was moved by human power, animal power or rail.
Mass motorization
The post-war years brought increased wealth and a demand for much greater mobility for people and goods. The number of road vehicles in Britain increased fivefold between 1950 and 1979,
Concerns about the sustainability of this approach became widespread during the
Transport innovations dating from this period include high-occupancy vehicle lanes, citywide carpool systems and transportation demand management. Singapore implemented congestion pricing in the late 1970s, and Curitiba began implementing its Bus Rapid Transit system in the early 1980s.
Relatively low and stable oil prices during the 1980s and 1990s led to significant increases in vehicle travel from 1980 to 2000, both directly because people chose to travel by car more often and for greater distances, and indirectly because cities developed tracts of suburban housing, distant from shops and from workplaces, now referred to as
At the same time, the academic foundations of the "predict and provide" approach to transport were being questioned, notably by Peter Newman in a set of comparative studies of cities and their transport systems dating from the mid-1980s.[107]
The British Government's White Paper on Transport[108] marked a change in direction for transport planning in the UK. In the introduction to the White Paper, Prime Minister Tony Blair stated that
We recognise that we cannot simply build our way out of the problems we face. It would be environmentally irresponsible – and would not work.
A companion document to the White Paper called "Smarter Choices" researched the potential to scale up the small and scattered sustainable transport initiatives then occurring across Britain, and concluded that the comprehensive application of these techniques could reduce peak period car travel in urban areas by over 20%.[109]
A similar study by the United States Federal Highway Administration,[110] was also released in 2004 and also concluded that a more proactive approach to transportation demand was an important component of overall national transport strategy.
Mobility transition
See also
- Alternatives to car use
- Circular economy
- Cyclability
- Ecological modernization
- Electric bicycle
- Energy efficiency in transport
- Environmental impact of aviation
- Environmental impact of shipping
- Free public transport
- Freeway removal
- Green building
- Green infrastructure
- Green transport hierarchy
- Hypermobility
- Localism
- Modal share
- Michael Replogle
- Road reallocation
- Solar vehicle
- Sustainable architecture
- Sustainable aviation fuel
- Sustainable biofuel
- Sustainable distribution
- Urban vitality
- Wind-powered vehicle
Groups:
- EcoMobility Alliance
- Institute for Transportation and Development Policy
- International Association of Public Transport
- Michelin Challenge Bibendum
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Bibliography
- Adey, Peter; Cresswell, Tim; Lee, Jane Yeonjae; Nikolaeva, Anna; Nóvoa, André; Temenos, Cristina (2021). Moving Towards Transition: Commoning Mobility for a Low-Carbon Future. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 4. ISBN 9781786998989. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
- Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence, Island Press, Washington DC, 1999. ISBN 1-55963-660-2.
- Sustainable Transportation Networks, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, England, 2000. ISBN 1-84064-357-9
- Introduction to Sustainable Transportation: Policy, Planning and Implementation, Earthscan, London, Washington DC, 2010. Schiller P Eric C. Bruun and Jeffrey R. Kenworthy, ISBN 978-1-84407-665-9.
- Sustainable Transport, Mobility Management and Travel Plans, Ashgate Press, Farnham, Surrey, 2012, Enoch M P. ISBN 978-0-7546-7939-4.
External links
- Guiding Principles to Sustainable Mobility
- Sustainable Urban Transport Project - knowledge platform (SUTP)
- German Partnership for Sustainable Mobility (GPSM)
- Bridging the Gap: Pathways for transport in the post 2012 process
- Sustainable-mobility.org: the centre of resources on sustainable transport
- Transportation Research at IssueLab
- Switching Gears: Enabling Access to Sustainable Urban Mobility