Bengal tiger: Difference between revisions
Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers 53,965 edits →India: edited 2 refs |
Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers 53,965 edits →Population and distribution: expanded + moved info re: Terai Arc Landscape to section /* Conservation efforts, status and controversies |
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In May 2008, forest officials at the [[Ranthambore National Park]] in Rajasthan, India spotted 14 tiger cubs.<ref>BBC News (2008) ''Joy over India tiger cubs births'' BBC News, 6 May 2008 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7386191.stm article online]</ref> In June 2008, a tiger from Ranthambore was relocated to the [[Sariska Tiger Reserve]], where all tigers had fallen victim to poachers and human encroachments since 2005.<ref>Rahman, M. (2008) ''Tiger reintroduced at Indian reserve after poachers kill off population.'' Guardian News and Media Limited. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/jul/01/wildlife.endangeredspecies?gusrc=rss&feed=networkfront?TB_iframe=true&height=650&width=850 article online]</ref> |
In May 2008, forest officials at the [[Ranthambore National Park]] in Rajasthan, India spotted 14 tiger cubs.<ref>BBC News (2008) ''Joy over India tiger cubs births'' BBC News, 6 May 2008 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7386191.stm article online]</ref> In June 2008, a tiger from Ranthambore was relocated to the [[Sariska Tiger Reserve]], where all tigers had fallen victim to poachers and human encroachments since 2005.<ref>Rahman, M. (2008) ''Tiger reintroduced at Indian reserve after poachers kill off population.'' Guardian News and Media Limited. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/jul/01/wildlife.endangeredspecies?gusrc=rss&feed=networkfront?TB_iframe=true&height=650&width=850 article online]</ref> |
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As of June 2009, tigers are found in 37 [[Tiger Reserves of India|tiger reserves]] spread across 17 Indian states.<ref>Irish Examiner (2009) ''India steps up tiger conservation plans.'' Examiner Publications (Cork) Limited, July 03, 2009. [http://www.irishexaminer.com/breakingnews/world/india-steps-up-tiger-conservation-plans-417322.html article online |
As of June 2009, tigers are found in 37 [[Tiger Reserves of India|tiger reserves]] spread across 17 Indian states.<ref>Irish Examiner (2009) ''India steps up tiger conservation plans.'' Examiner Publications (Cork) Limited, July 03, 2009. [http://www.irishexaminer.com/breakingnews/world/india-steps-up-tiger-conservation-plans-417322.html article online]</ref> |
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Rivaling Chitwan for the title of the world's best tiger habitat is the [[Western Ghats]] forest complex in western [[South India]], an area of {{convert|14400|mi2|km2|sp=us}} stretching across several protected areas. The challenge here, as throughout most of Asia, is that people literally live on top of the wildlife. The Save the Tiger Fund Council estimates that 7,500 landless people live illegally inside the boundaries of the {{convert|386|sqmi|km2|adj=on}} [[Nagarhole National Park]] in southwestern [[India]]. A voluntary if controversial resettlement is underway with the aid of the Karnataka Tiger Conservation Project led by [[K. Ullas Karanth]] of the Wildlife Conservation Society. |
Rivaling Chitwan for the title of the world's best tiger habitat is the [[Western Ghats]] forest complex in western [[South India]], an area of {{convert|14400|mi2|km2|sp=us}} stretching across several protected areas. The challenge here, as throughout most of Asia, is that people literally live on top of the wildlife. The Save the Tiger Fund Council estimates that 7,500 landless people live illegally inside the boundaries of the {{convert|386|sqmi|km2|adj=on}} [[Nagarhole National Park]] in southwestern [[India]]. A voluntary if controversial resettlement is underway with the aid of the Karnataka Tiger Conservation Project led by [[K. Ullas Karanth]] of the Wildlife Conservation Society. |
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==Conservation efforts, status and controversies== |
==Conservation efforts, status and controversies== |
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An area of special interest lies in the Terai Arc Landscape in the [[Himalaya|Himalayan]] foothills in northern India and southern Nepal, where 11 protected areas comprising dry forest foothills and tall-grass savannas harbor tigers in a {{convert|49000|km2|mi2}} landscape. The goals are to manage tigers as a single metapopulation, the dispersal of which between core refuges can help maintain genetic, demographic, and ecological integrity, and to ensure that species and habitat conservation becomes mainstreamed into the rural development agenda. Nepal has developed a community-based tourism model, with a strong |
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emphasis on sharing benefits with locals and on the regeneration of degraded forests. |
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The approach has been successful in reducing poaching, restoring habitats, and creating a local |
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constituency for conservation.<ref name="future">Damania, R., Seidensticker, J., Whitten, T., Sethi, G., Mackinnon, K., Kiss, A., Kushlin, A. (2008) ''A Future for Wild Tigers''. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. [http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bitstream/10088/7930/1/986D8887-2F38-44FE-96A2-A59C8FAE96BE.pdf pdf]</ref> |
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===Efforts in India=== |
===Efforts in India=== |
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{{Main|Project Tiger}} |
{{Main|Project Tiger}} |
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Revision as of 15:28, 24 September 2010
| Royal Bengal Tiger Hindi : बाघ
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| Bengal Tiger in Bannerghatta National Park | |
| Scientific classification | |
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| Subspecies: | P. t. tigris
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Trinomial name
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| Panthera tigris tigris (
Linnaeus , 1760) | |
The Bengal tiger, or Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris[1], previously Panthera tigris bengalensis), is a subspecies of tiger native to India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. The Bengal tiger is the most numerous of the tiger subspecies — with populations estimated at 1,411 in India, 200 in Bangladesh, 155 in Nepal and 67–81 in Bhutan.[2][3][4][5]
The Bengal subspecies P. tigris tigris is the
Biology
Physical characteristics
Its coat is a yellow to light orange, and the stripes range from dark brown to black; the belly is white, and the tail is white with black rings. A mutation of the Bengal subspecies, the white tiger, has dark brown or reddish brown stripes on a white background, and some are entirely white. Black tigers have tawny, yellow or white stripes on a black background color. The skin of a black tiger, recovered from smugglers, measured 259 cm and was displayed at the National Museum of Natural History, in New Delhi. The existence of black tigers without stripes has been reported but not substantiated.[7]
The total body length including the tail of males is 270–310 cm, while females are 240–265 cm.[8] The tail measures 85–110 cm, and the height at the shoulder is 90–110 cm.[9] The average weight of males is 221.2 kg (487.7 lb) of females 139.7 kg (308 lb).[10]
Male Bengal tigers from the northern Indian subcontinent are as large as Siberian tigers with a greatest length of skulls of 332–376 mm.[11] In northern India and Nepal, males have an average weight of 235 kg (518 lb), and females 140 kg (308.6 lb).[12] Recent studies of body weights of different tiger subspecies have shown that Bengal tigers are on average larger than Siberian tigers.[10]
The Bengal tiger's roar can be heard for up to 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) away.[13]
Tiger records
A heavy male Bengal tiger weighing 258.6 kg (570 lbs) was shot in Northern India in 1938.[14] In 1980 and 1984, scientists captured and tagged two male tigers (M105 and M026) in Nepal that weighed more than 270 kg (600 lb).[15] The largest known Bengal tiger was a male with a head and body length of 221 cm measured between pegs, 150 cm of chest girth, a shoulder height of 109 cm and a tail of just 81 cm, perhaps bitten off by a rival male. This specimen could not be weighed, but it was calculated to weigh no less than 272 kg.[16] Finally, according to the Guinness Book of Records, the heaviest tiger known was a huge male hunted in 1967, that measured 322 cm in total length between pegs, 338 cm over curves and weighed 388.7 kg (857 lb). This specimen was hunted in northern India by David Hasinger and is on exhibition in the Mammals Hall of the Smithsonian Institution.[17]
In the beginning of the 20th century, there were reports of big males measuring about 12 ft (3.7 m) in total length; however, there was not scientific corroboration in the field, and it is probable that this measurement was taken over the curves of the body.[18]
Genetic ancestry
Bengal tigers are defined by three distinct mitochondrial nucleotide sites and 12 unique microsatellite alleles. The pattern of genetic variation in the Bengal tiger corresponds to the premise that these tigers arrived in India approximately 12,000 years ago. This recent history of tigers in the Indian subcontinent is consistent with the lack of tiger fossils from India prior to the late Pleistocene and the absence of tigers from Sri Lanka, which was separated from the subcontinent by rising sea levels in the early Holocene.[19][20] However, a recent study of two independent fossil finds from Sri Lanka, one dated to approximately 16,500 years ago, tentatively classifies them as being a tiger.[21]
Behaviour and ecology
Tigers do not live in prides as lions do. They do not live as family units because the male plays no part in raising his offspring. Tigers mark their territory by spraying urine on a branch or leaves or bark of a tree, which leaves a particular scent behind. Tigers also spray urine to attract the opposite sex. When an outside individual comes into contact with the scent, it learns that the territory is occupied by another tiger. Hence, every tiger lives independently in its own territory.
Male Bengal tigers fiercely defend their territory from other tigers, often engaging in serious fighting. Female tigers are less territorial: occasionally a female will share her territory with other females. If a male happens to enter a female's territory, he will probably mate with her, if she is not already pregnant or has a litter. If she is pregnant or has a litter, he has no choice but to find himself a new territory and another potential mate. Similarly, females entering a male's territory are known to mate with him. Both males and females become independent of their mother around 18 months old, whereupon the cubs have to establish their own territories and fend for themselves. A male's territory is larger than a female's territory.
Reproduction and lifecycle
Males reach maturity at 4–5 years of age, and females at 3–4 years. Mating can occur at any time, but is most prevalent between November and April. A tigress comes into heat at intervals of about 3–9 weeks, and is receptive for 3–6 days. After a gestation period of 104–106 days, 1–4 cubs are born in a shelter situated in tall grass, thick bush or in caves. Newborn cubs weigh 780–1600 g (2 lb) and they have a thick wooly fur that is shed after 3.5–5 months. Their eyes and ears are closed. Their milk teeth start to erupt at about 2–3 weeks after birth, and are slowly replaced by permanent dentition from 8.5–9.5 weeks of age onwards. They suckle for 3–6 months, and begin to eat small amounts of solid food at about 2 months of age. At this time, they follow their mother on her hunting expeditions and begin to take part in hunting at 5–6 months of age. At the age of 2–3 years, they slowly start to separate from the family group and become transient — looking out for an area, where the can establish their own territory. Young males move further away from their mother's territory than young females. Once the family group has split, the mother comes into heat again.[8]
Hunting and diet
Tigers are obligate
Bengal tigers have also been known to take other predators, such as
In most cases, tigers approach their victim from the side or behind from as close a distance as possible and grasp the prey's throat to kill it. Then they drag the carcass into cover, occasionally over several hundred meters, to consume it. The nature of the tiger's hunting method and prey availability results in a "feast or famine" feeding style: they often consume 18–40 kilograms (40–88 lb) of meat at one time.[8]
Population and distribution
In 2010, the population of wild Bengal tigers in the
Poachers kill tigers not only for their pelts, but also for body parts used to make various traditional
India
The Bengal tiger has been a national symbol of India since about the
India hosts about two-thirds of the Bengal tiger population.[1] While the Project Tiger initiative launched in 1972 initially reversed the population decline, the decline has resumed in recent years; India's tiger population decreased from 3,642 in the 1990s to just over 1,400 from 2002 to 2008.[34] Since then, the Indian government has undertaken several steps to reduce the destruction of the Bengal tiger's natural habitat in India.
In the past, Indian censuses of wild tigers relied on the individual identification of footprints known as pug marks — a method that has been criticized as inaccurate.[35] Using modern camera trap counting methods, the landmark 2008 national tiger census report estimates only 1,411 adult tigers in India, plus uncensused tigers in the Sundarbans delta mangrove forests.[36]
In May 2008, forest officials at the Ranthambore National Park in Rajasthan, India spotted 14 tiger cubs.[37] In June 2008, a tiger from Ranthambore was relocated to the Sariska Tiger Reserve, where all tigers had fallen victim to poachers and human encroachments since 2005.[38]
As of June 2009, tigers are found in 37
Rivaling Chitwan for the title of the world's best tiger habitat is the Western Ghats forest complex in western South India, an area of 14,400 square miles (37,000 km2) stretching across several protected areas. The challenge here, as throughout most of Asia, is that people literally live on top of the wildlife. The Save the Tiger Fund Council estimates that 7,500 landless people live illegally inside the boundaries of the 386-square-mile (1,000 km2) Nagarhole National Park in southwestern India. A voluntary if controversial resettlement is underway with the aid of the Karnataka Tiger Conservation Project led by K. Ullas Karanth of the Wildlife Conservation Society.
A 2007 report by UNESCO, "Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage" has stated that an anthropogenic 45-cm rise in sea level (likely by the end of the 21st century, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), combined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans, could lead to the destruction of 75% of the Sundarbans mangroves.
Bangladesh
According to lateset pug mark census, 400 Bengal tigers are counted to live in Bangladesh. Most are in Sundarbans, while a few could be found in eastern hilly part of the country. The
The Save the Tiger Fund and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service generously donated funds to support the initial phase of research that aims to collect data on tiger ecology using telemetry, and study the tiger’s environment by assessing its habitat and prey.
But management of a wilderness area needs more than just information on the species to be protected. Personnel with skills and resources to implement conservation strategies, and the general support of the country are also required. So from the research base, the project is evolving rapidly to also encompass capacity building and conservation awareness activities. It has been able to do so through the forward thinking approach to management taken by the Forest Department, and the incredible support of the Bangladeshi people.
The project is administered by the Forest Department and it uses wildlife consultants from the University of Minnesota to advise on research strategies and train staff. At the field level, there is a team of 8, made up of Forest Department personnel and one wildlife consultant.
Nepal
The tiger population in the
Once a royal hunting reserve, Chitwan became a national park in 1973. New economic incentives give villagers a direct stake in this renowned tourist attraction, with more than a third of revenues from park entrance fees being returned to the 300,000 people living in 36 villages in the surrounding buffer zone. As a result, locals are now creating and managing
Bhutan
In Bhutan, scientists have evidence of a richer tiger population than previously estimated. Camera traps snapped photos of a wild tiger high in the Himalayas, at the surprising elevation of 13,000 feet (4,000 m). This offers new possibilities for suitable tiger habitat.[7]
Relationship with humans
Poaching
The Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI) works with law enforcement agencies in India to apprehend tiger poachers and wildlife traders throughout India. WPSI also makes every effort to investigate and verify any seizure of tiger parts and unnatural tiger deaths that are brought to their notice.
The illicit demand for bones from wild tigers for use in traditional Chinese medicine, coupled with the international trade in tiger skins, continues to be the main reason for the unrelenting poaching pressure on tigers in India. There is virtually no demand for either bones or skins of tigers within India.[42]
The following figures represent only a fraction of the actual poaching and trade in tiger parts in India. The central and state governments do not systematically compile information on tiger poaching cases and the details come from reports received by WPSI from enforcement authorities, work carried out by WPSI, and other sources.[43]
To date, WPSI has documented the following cases:
| Year | Tigers known to be killed |
|---|---|
| 1994 | 95 |
| 1995 | 121 |
| 1996 | 52 |
| 1997 | 88 |
| 1998 | 44 |
| 1999 | 81 |
| 2000 | 53 |
| 2001 | 72 |
| 2002 | 43 |
| 2003 | 35 |
| 2004 | 34 |
| 2005 | 43 |
| 2006 | 37 |
| 2007 | 27 |
In 2006, India's
Genetic pollution
Tara, a hand-reared supposedly Bengal tigress acquired from
Attack on humans
 | This section possibly contains original research. (April 2010) |
 |
Tigers are known to not like the presence of
Conservation efforts, status and controversies
An area of special interest lies in the Terai Arc Landscape in the
Efforts in India
The Indian
Tiger scientists in India, such as Raghu Chundawat and Ullas Karanth, have faced criticism from the forest department. Both these scientists have been for years calling for use of technology in the conservation efforts. Chundawat, in the past, had been involved with radio telemetry (collaring the tigers). While studying tigers in Panna tiger reserve, he repeatedly warned the FD authorities about the problem of tiger poaching in the reserve; they remained in denial, producing bogus numbers of tigers in their reports, and banned Chundawat from the reserve. Eventually, however, it was proven he was right, as in 2008. the authorities admitted that all tigers in Panna have been poached.[57] Karanth has been instrumental in using camera traps, radiotelemetry and prey counts. During the 1990s and early 2000s he also noticed that tiger numbers were significantly lower than the official figures; his insistence on using modern science in tiger conservation and uncompromising efforts to save tigers and their habitat have earned him many enemies.
The project to map all the forest reserves in India has not been completed yet, though the Ministry of Environment and Forests had sanctioned Rs. 13 million for the same in March 2004.
A recent article written by Shashwat DC and published in the Dataquest Magazine talks about the issue in complete detail [3]. In the story, noted wildlife expert George Schaller was quoted as saying:
"India has to decide whether it wants to keep the tiger or not. It has to decide if it is worthwhile to keep its National Symbol, its icon, representing wildlife. It has to decide if it wants to keep its natural heritage for future generations, a heritage more important than the cultural one, whether we speak of its temples, the Taj Mahal, or others, because once destroyed it cannot be replaced."
In January 2008, the Government of India launched a dedicated anti-poaching force composed of experts from Indian police, forest officials and various other environmental agencies.[58] Indian officials successfully started a project to reintroduce the tigers into the Sariska reserve.[59] The Ranthambore National Park is often cited as a major success by Indian officials against poaching.[60]
Re-wilding project in South Africa
There is a supposed Bengal tiger re-wilding project started by John Varty in 2000. This project involves training captive-bred tiger cubs by their human trainers so that the tigers can regain their predatory instincts. Once they prove that they can sustain themselves in the wild, they would be released into the wilderness of Africa to fend for themselves. Their trainers, John Varty and Dave Salmoni (big-cat trainer and zoologist), have to teach them how to stalk, to hunt, and, most importantly, to associate hunting with food.
It is claimed that two Bengal tigers have already succeeded in re-wilding, and two more tigers are currently undergoing their re-wilding training. This project is featured by
A strong criticism about this project is with the chosen cubs.
The tigers in the Tiger Canyons Project have recently been confirmed to be crossbred Siberian/Bengal tigers. Tigers that are not genetically pure are not allowed to be released into the wild and will not be able to participate in the tiger Species Survival Plan, which aims to breed genetically pure tiger specimens and individuals.[65] In short, these tigers do not have any genetic value.[65]
The documentary has been proven to be a fraud.[66] The tigers are unable to hunt, and the film crew chased the prey up against the fence and into the path of the tigers just for the sake of dramatic footage. Cory Meacham, a US-based environmental journalist mentioned that "the film has about as much to do with tiger conservation as a Disney cartoon." In addition, the tigers have not been released, and indeed still reside in a small enclosure under constant watch and with frequent human contact. The Discovery documentary contains footage that its maker, John Varty, has admitted on affidavit to be false. Conservationists fear that the public will be misled in this cynical fashion.[67]
Usage within sports
- The logo of Bangladesh Cricket Board features a Royal Bengal Tiger.
- Cincinnati's National Football League team is named the Cincinnati Bengals.
- The MLB team Detroit Tigersare nicknamed the Bengals.
- Dominican Republic's most successful baseball team Licey Tigersare nicknamed the Bengals.
- The team from Kolkata in the Indian Cricket League is called the Royal Bengal Tigers.
- Louisiana State University's Tigers are nicknamed the Bayou Bengals.
References
- ^ a b c d Template:IUCN2008
- ^ Jhala, Y. V., Gopal, R. and Qureshi, Q. 2008. Status of tigers, co-predators and prey in India. National Tiger Conservation Authority, Govt of India and the Wildlife Institute of India, New Delhi and Dehra Dun, India.
- ^ Khan, M. M. H. 2004. Ecology and Conservation of the Bengal Tiger in the Sundarbans Mangrove Forest of Bangladesh. University of Cambridge, Department of Anatomy.
- ^ a b The Economic Times. 2010. Nepal has 155 adult tigers, 5% of world population. Times Internet Limited. article online
- ^ Sangay, T. and Wangchuk, T. 2005. Tiger Action Plan for Bhutan 2006-2015. Nature Conservation Division Department of Forests, Ministry of Agriculture, Royal Government of Bhutan & WWF Bhutan Programme, Thimphu.
- ^ National Animal- Panthera tigris Government of India website.
- ^ a b http://animal.discovery.com/tv/tiger-spy-jungle/tigers-world/bengal-tiger.html
- ^ a b c Mazák, V. (1981). Panthera tigris. Mammalian Species No. 152: 1–8. American Society of Mammalogists. pdf
- ^ Karanth, K. U. 2003. Tiger ecology and conservation in the Indian subcontinent. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, Vol. 100, No. 2&3. August–December 2003. Pp. 169–189. [1]
- ^ a b Slaght, J. C., D. G. Miquelle, I. G. Nikolaev, J. M. Goodrich, E. N. Smirnov, K. Traylor-Holzer, S. Christie, T. Arjanova, J. L. D. Smith, and K. U. Karanth. 2005. Chapter 6. Who‘s king of the beasts? Historical and recent body weights of wild and captive Amur tigers, with comparisons to other subspecies. In D.G. Miquelle, E.N. Smirnov, and J.M. Goodrich (Eds.). Tigers in Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik: Ecology and Conservation. PSP, Vladivostok, Russia (in Russian), pages 25–35.pdf
- ^ Kitchener, A. (1999) Tiger distribution, phenotypic variation and conservation issues. In: Seidensticker, J., Christie, S., Jackson, P. (eds.) Riding the Tiger. Tiger Conservation in human-dominated landscapes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. hardback isbn 0 521 64057 1, paperback isbn 0 521 64835 1. pdf
- ^ Sunquist, M. & Sunquist F. 2002. Wild cats of the world. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 462 pp. ISBN 0-226-77999-8
- ^ National Geographic Animal Facts: Bengal Tiger online
- ^ Hewett, J. 1938. Jungle trails in northern India: reminiscences of hunting in India. London, Methuen and Co. 276 pp. (see page 162)
- ^ Dinerstein, E. 2003. Return of the Unicorns. Columbia University Press. 384 pp. ISBN 0-231-08450-1
- ^ Brander, A. 1923. Wild Animals in Central India. London : Edwin Arnold & Co. 296 pp.
- ^ Wood, G. 1983. The Guinness book of animal facts and feats. Sterling Pub. Co. Inc. 3ra. edición. 256 pp. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9
- ^ Sterndale, R. 1884. Natural History of the Mammalia of India and Ceylon. Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta, 540 pp. (See No. 201. Felis tigris).[2]
- ^ Kitchener, A.C. & Dugmore, A. J. 2000. Biogeographical change in the tiger, Panthera tigris. Animal Conservation 3: 113–124.
- ^ Luo, S. J.; Kim, J.-H.; Johnson, W. E.; Walt, J. vd.; Martenson, J.; et al. 2004. Phylogeography and Genetic Ancestry of Tigers (Panthera tigris). PLoS Biol 2(12): e442 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020442. abstract
- ^ Manamendra-Arachchi, K.; Pethiyagoda, R.; Dissanayake, R.; Meegaskumbura, M. 2005. A Second Extinct Big Cat From The Late Quaternary of Sri Lanka. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 2005 Supplement No. 12: 423–434. pdf
- ^ Bagchi, S., Goyal, S.P., Sankar, K. (2003) Prey abundance and prey selection by tigers (Panthera tigris) in a semi-arid, dry deciduous forest in western India. Journal of Zoology 260: 285-290 doi: 10.1017/S0952836903003765 abstract
- ^ Andheria, A. P., Karanth, K. U., Kumar, N. S. (2007) Diet and prey profiles of three sympatric large carnivores in Bandipur Tiger Reserve, India. Journal of Zoology 273: 169–175 doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00310.x abstract
- ^ Biswas, S., Sankar, K. (2002) Prey abundance and food habit of tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) in Pench National Park, Madhya Pradesh, India. Journal of Zoology, 256: 411–420. doi: 10.1017/S0952836902000456 abstract
- ^ Wegge, P., Odden, M., Pokharel, C. Pd., Storaasc, T. (2009) Predator–prey relationships and responses of ungulates and their predators to the establishment of protected areas: A case study of tigers, leopards and their prey in Bardia National Park, Nepal. Biological Conservation 142 (2009): 189-202 pdf
- ^ Prachi, M., Kulkarni, J. (2006) Monitoring of Tiger and Prey Population Dynamics in Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra, India. Final Technical Report. Envirosearch, Pune
- ^ Mazak, V. (1996) Der Tiger : Panthera tigris. Westarp Wissenschaften, Magdeburg, Heidelberg, Berlin, Oxford ISBN 3894327596
- ^ Sanderson, E., Forrest, J., Loucks, C., Ginsberg, J., Dinerstein, E., Seidensticker, J., Leimgruber, P., Songer, M., Heydlauff, A., O'Brien, T., Bryja, G., Klenzendorf, S and Wikramanayake, E. 2006. Setting Priorities for the Conservation and Recovery of Wild Tigers: 2005-2015. The Technical Assessment. WCS, WWF, Smithsonian, and NFWF-STF, New York and Washington, DC, USA.
- K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A (2002) [1955]. A History of South India. New Delhi: OUP, p 18
- )
- ^ Sharma, A. (2008) India Reports Sharp Decline in Wild Tigers National Geographic News February 13, 2008 article online
- ^ Annabell, Maxine (2001). "Distribution and numbers for the Bengal tiger:". Tiger Territory. Retrieved 31 January 2010.
- ^ "National Animal". Know India/National Symbols. New Delhi: Government of India, National Informatics Centre. 2009. Retrieved 31 January 2010.
- ^ Indian wild tiger numbers almost halve
- ^ Karanth, K.U., Nichols, J.D., Seidensticker, J., Dinerstein, E., Smith, J.L.D., McDougal, C., Johnsingh, A.J.T., Chundawat, R.S., Thapar, V. (2003) Science deficiency in conservation practice: the monitoring of tiger populations in India. Animal Conservation (2003)6: 141–146 pdf
- ^ Jhala, Y.V., Gopal, R., Qureshi, Q., ed. (2008). Status of the Tigers, Co-predators, and Prey in India (PDF). TR 08/001. New Delhi: National Tiger Conservation Authority, Govt. of India. p. 151.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - ^ BBC News (2008) Joy over India tiger cubs births BBC News, 6 May 2008 article online
- ^ Rahman, M. (2008) Tiger reintroduced at Indian reserve after poachers kill off population. Guardian News and Media Limited. article online
- ^ Irish Examiner (2009) India steps up tiger conservation plans. Examiner Publications (Cork) Limited, July 03, 2009. article online
- ^ WWF Nepal (2010) More tigers found in Nepal as Nepal-India trans-boundary efforts for tiger conservation intensify article online
- ^ Tiger Poaching Ring Busted by Indian Police
- ^ 'WILDLIFE PROTECTION SOCIETY OF INDIA. WPSI's Tiger Poaching Statistics
- ^ WILDLIFE PROTECTION SOCIETY OF INDIA. Tiger Poaching Statistics of India 2007
- ^ Poachers driving Indian tigers into oblivion
- ^ Indian tiger park 'has no tigers'
- ^ Indian tiger isn't 100 per cent “swadeshi (Made in India)”; by PALLAVA BAGLA; Indian Express Newspaper; November 19, 1998
- ^ Tainted Royalty, WILDLIFE: ROYAL BENGAL TIGER, A controversy arises over the purity of the Indian tiger after DNA samples show Siberian tiger genes. By Subhadra Menon. INDIA TODAY, November 17, 1997
- ^ The Tale of Tara, 4: Tara's Heritage from Tiger Territory website
- ^ Genetic pollution in wild Bengal tigers, Tiger Territory website
- ^ Interview with Billy Arjan Singh: Dudhwa's Tiger man, October 2000, Sanctuary Asia Magazine, sanctuaryasia.com
- ^ Mitochondrial DNA sequence divergence among big cats and their hybrids by Pattabhiraman Shankaranarayanan* and Lalji Singh*, *Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500 007, India, Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics, CCMB Campus, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500 007, India
- ^ Central Zoo Authority of India (CZA), Government of India
- .
- ^ Damania, R., Seidensticker, J., Whitten, T., Sethi, G., Mackinnon, K., Kiss, A., Kushlin, A. (2008) A Future for Wild Tigers. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. pdf
- ^ Page, Jeremy (July 5, 2008). "Tigers flown by helicopter to Sariska reserve to lift numbers in western India". The Times. London. Retrieved April 26, 2010.
- ^ "Just 1,411 tigers in India". The Times of India. February 13, 2008. Retrieved 2009-03-03.
- ^ "The great Panna cover-up". NDTV. April 29, 2010. Retrieved 2009-04-29.
- ^ India launches anti-poaching force to curb tiger, wildlife trade
- ^ It's the tale of a tiger, two tigresses in wilds of Sariska
- ^ Tigers galore in Ranthambhore National Park
- ^ Releasing Captive Tigers – South Africa
- ^ Save The Tiger Fund | Bengal Tiger
- ^ Ron and Julie, Living with Tigers, Tiger Canyons, John Varty
- ^ Seatao and Shadow, Tiger Canyons, John Varty
- ^ a b Purrrfect Breed?
- ^ http://www.wildeye.co.uk/wildlife-film/Wfn/wfn56.htm
- ^ http://www.nomadtours.co.za/article_2006-6-2_5.html
External links
- Information Resources on Tigers, Panthera tigris: Natural History, Ecology, Conservation, Biology, and Captive Care AWIC Resource Series No. 34, April 2006
- Cat Specialist Group on Bengal Tigers
- Chinese Tigers Learn Hunting, Survival Skills in Africa Leon Marshall for National Geographic News, March 2, 2005
- Tiger Encounters
- The four faces of the Bengal tiger Picture series, The Guardian, Accessed April 15, 2009