Wildlife trade
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Wildlife trade refers to the products that are derived from non-domesticated
Wildlife trade is a serious conservation problem, has a negative effect on the viability of many wildlife populations and is one of the major threats to the survival of vertebrate species.[3] The illegal wildlife trade has been linked to the emergence and spread of new infectious diseases in humans, including emergent viruses.[4][5] Global initiative like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15 have a target to end the illegal supply of wildlife.[6]
Terminology
Wildlife use is a general term for all uses of wildlife products, including ritual or religious uses, consumption of bushmeat and different forms of trade. Wildlife use is usually linked to hunting or poaching. Wildlife trade can be differentiated in legal and illegal trade, and both can have domestic (local or national) or international markets, but they might be often related with each other.[7]
Ineffective monitoring of international wildlife trade
The volume of international trade in wildlife commodities is immense and continues to rise. According to an analysis to the 2012 Harmonized System customs statistics, global import of wildlife products amounted to US$187 billion, of which fisheries commodities accounted for $113 billion; plants and forestry products for $71 billion; non-fishery animal for $3 billion including live animals, parts and derivatives.[8]
However, the global trade of wildlife commodities is ineffectively monitored and accounted for due to the constraint of the HS Code System used by the customs worldwide. The majority of international imports of wildlife are only recorded in extremely basic and general categories, such as 'plant' or 'animal products', with no further taxonomic detail. It is estimated that near 50% of the global import of plant and 70% of animal products are imported as general categories, with an exception for fisheries (ca. 5%), thanks to various multilateral fishery management agreements that requires taxon-specific fish catch reporting.[8]
Many jurisdictions rely on the declared HS Code of the consignments for detection and prosecution of illegal wildlife import. The lack of specificity of HS Code precludes effective monitoring and traceability of global wildlife trade. There is an increasing call for a reform of the HS Code to strengthen monitoring and enforcement of global wildlife trade.[9][10][11][12][13][14]
Reasons for concern
Different forms of wildlife trade or use (utilization, hunting, trapping, collection or over-exploitation) are the second major threat to endangered
Wildlife trade threatens the local
According to the
Zoonoses
Outbreaks of
Nonetheless, the COVID-19 pandemic declaration – and the subsequent quarantines – increased online trade in wildlife.[36] The isolation of quarantine itself immediately became the selling point, with pets as companions and distractions.[36]
Survival rate of species during transport
In some instances; such as the sale of chameleons from Madagascar, organisms are transported by boat or via the air to consumers. The survival rate of these is extremely poor (only 1% survival rate).[37] This is undoubtedly caused by the illegal nature; vendors rather not risk that the chameleons were to be discovered and so do not ship them in plain view. Due to the very low survival rate, it also means that far higher amounts of organisms (in this case chameleons) are taken away from the ecosystem, to make up for the losses.
Consequences for indigenous peoples
In many instances,
Illegal wildlife trade
Asia
Notable trade hubs of the wildlife trade include
Despite international and local laws designed to crack down on the trade, live animals and animal parts – often those of endangered or threatened species – are sold in open-air markets throughout Asia.[47] The animals involved in the trade end up as trophies, or in specialty restaurants. Some are used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Despite the name, elements of TCM are widely adopted throughout East and Southeast Asia, among both Chinese and non-Chinese communities.
The trade also includes demand for exotic pets especially birds,[48] and consumption of wildlife for meat. Large volumes of fresh water tortoises and turtles, snakes, pangolins and monitor lizards are consumed as meat in Asia, including in specialty restaurants that feature wildlife as gourmet dining.
Related to the exotic pet trade, captive wildlife are held in sanctuaries which have been involved in illegal wildlife trade. In Thailand the Tiger Temple was closed in 2016 due to being accused of clandestine exchange of tigers.
India
Illegal wildlife trade in India has increased.[49][50]
According to a report published by the Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) in 2004, India is the chief target for the traders of wildlife skin.[51] Between 1994 and 2003, there have been 784 cases where the skins of tiger, leopard or otter have been seized.[51] Leopards, rhinoceros, reptiles, birds, insects, rare species of plants are being smuggled into the countries in Southeast Asia and the People's Republic of China.[49] Between 1994 and 2003, poaching and seizure of 698 otters have been documented in India.[51]
Kathmandu is a key staging point for illegal skins smuggled from India bound for Tibet and PRC.[51] The report by EIA noted there has been a lack of cross-border cooperation between India, Nepal and the People's Republic of China to coordinate enforcement operations and lack of political will to treat wildlife crime effectively.[51] The poaching of elephants is a significant problem in Southern India[52] and in the North-Eastern states of Nagaland and Mizoram.[53] In 2015-17, Operation Shikkar led to the arrest of 72 individuals and the seizure of 464 kg of ivory.
The majority of tiger
Following is a comparison of reported cases of tiger and leopard poaching from 1998 to 2003:Year | 1998 | 1999 | 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reported cases of tiger poaching[57] | 14 | 38 | 39 | 35 | 47 | 8 |
Reported cases of leopard poaching[57] | 28 | 80 | 201 | 69 | 87 | 15 |
Samir Sinha, head of
Africa
Many African species are traded both within the country of origin and internationally.[59] Charismatic mega-fauna are among commonly traded species native to the African continent including African elephants, pangolin, rhinoceros, leopards, and lions. Other animals such as vultures play a role in trade, both domestically and internationally. In northern Botswana the number of found elephant carcasses increased approximately six times in the years 2014–2018 and the country legalized elephant hunting in May 2019. At the same time, the elephants began to die from a mysterious disease that possibly presents a danger to humans.[60]
Morocco has been identified as a transit country for wildlife moving from Africa to Europe due to its porous borders with Spain. Wildlife is present in the markets as photo props, sold for decoration, used in medicinal practices, sold as pets and used to decorate shops. Large numbers of reptiles are sold in the markets, especially spur-thighed tortoises. Although leopards have most likely been extirpated from Morocco, their skins can regularly be seen sold openly as medicinal products or decoration in the markets.[61]
South America
Although the volume of animals traded may be greater in Southeast Asia, animal trading in Latin America is widespread as well.
In open air Amazon markets in Iquitos and Manaus, a variety of rainforest animals are sold openly as meat, such as agoutis, peccaries, turtles, turtle eggs, walking catfish, etc. In addition, many species are sold as pets. The keeping of parrots and monkeys as pets by villagers along the Amazon is commonplace. But the sale of these "companion" animals in open markets is rampant. Capturing the baby tamarins, marmosets, spider monkeys, saki monkeys, in order to sell them, often requires shooting the mother primate out of a treetop with her clinging child; the youngster may or may not survive the fall. With the human population increasing, such practices have a serious impact on the future prospects for many threatened species. The United States is a popular destination for Amazonian rainforest animals. They are smuggled across borders the same way illegal drugs are – in the trunks of cars, in suitcases, in crates disguised as something else.
In Venezuela more than 400 animal species are involved in subsistence hunting, domestic and international (illegal) trade. These activities are widespread and might overlap in many regions, although they are driven by different markets and target different species.[7]
In Brazil, the wildlife trade has grown over the years, as it one of the most biodiverse areas in the world. Mammals and amphibians are among the highest traded animals. In recent studies, non-native species of amphibians and mammals were identified in Brazil, with frogs and rodents, respectively, posing the greatest invasion risks.[62][63] The online trade of amphibians as exotic pets has risen almost six times since 2015.[64]
Online
Through both deep web (password protected, encrypted) and dark web (special portal browsers) markets, participants can trade and transact illegal substances, including wildlife. However the amount of activity is still negligible compared to the amount on the open or surface web. As stated in an examination of search engine key words relating to wildlife trade in an article published by Conservation Biology, "This negligible level of activity related to the illegal trade of wildlife on the dark web relative to the open and increasing trade on the surface web may indicate a lack of successful enforcement against illegal wildlife trade on the surface web."[65]
A study conducted by the
Organizations addressing illegal wildlife trade
- ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network
- Basel Institute on Governance
- Clark R. Bavin National Fish and Wildlife Forensic Laboratory
- Four Paws
- FREELAND Foundation
- International Fund for Animal Welfare
- International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
- Monitor Conservation Research Society (Monitor)
- South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network (SAWEN)
- Species Survival Network
- TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network
- United for Wildlife
- United Nations Environment Programme
- Wildlife Alliance
- World Wildlife Fund for Nature
Legal wildlife trade
Legal trade of wildlife has occurred for many species for a number of reasons, including commercial trade, pet trade as well as conservation attempts. Whilst most examples of legal trade of wildlife are as a result of large population numbers or pests, there is potential for the use of legal trade to reduce illegal trade threatening many species. Legalizing the trade of species can allow for more regulated harvesting of animals and prevent illegal over-harvesting.[citation needed]
Many environmentalists, scientists, and zoologists around the world are against legalizing pet trade of invasive or introduced species, as their release into the wild, be it intentional or not, could compete with indigenous species, and lead to their endangerment.[citation needed]
Examples of successful wildlife trade
Australia
Crocodiles
Trade of crocodiles in Australia has been largely successful. Saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) and freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus johnstoni) are listed under CITES Appendix II. Commercial harvesting of these crocodiles occurs in Northern Territory, Queensland and Western Australia, including harvesting from wild populations as well as approved captive breeding programs based on quotas set by the Australian government.[67]
Kangaroos
Kangaroos are currently legally harvested for commercial trade and export in Australia. There are a number of species included in the trade including:
- Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus)
- Eastern grey kangaroo (M. giganteus)
- Western grey kangaroo (M.fuliginosus)
- Common wallaroo (M. robustus)
Harvesting of kangaroos for legal trade does not occur in National Parks and is determined by quotas set by state government departments. Active kangaroo management has gained a commercial value in the trade of kangaroo meat, hides and other products.[68]
North America
Alligator
Alligators have been traded commercially in Florida and other American states as part of a management program.[69] The use of legal trade and quotas have allowed management of a species as well as economic incentive for sustaining habitat with greater ecological benefits.
Legalising trade for endangered species
Legalising the trade of products derived from endangered species is highly controversial.[70] Many researchers have proposed that a well regulated legal market could benefit some endangered species by either flooding the market with products that drive down the price of illegal products,[71] decreasing the incentive to illegally harvest, or by providing revenue that could fund the species's conservation.[72] However, laundering and corruption pose a major obstacle to implementing such policies, as illegal harvesters attempt to disguise illegal product as legal when trade is legalized.[73]
Under the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), species listed under Appendix I are threatened with extinction, and commercial trade in wild-caught specimens, or products derived from them, is prohibited.[74] This rule applies to all species threatened with extinction, except in exceptional circumstances.[75] Commercial trade of endangered species listed under Appendix II and III is not prohibited, although Parties must provide non-detriment finding to show that the species in the wild is not being unsustainably harvested for the purpose of trade. Specimens of Appendix I species that were bred in captivity for commercial purposes are treated as Appendix II. An example of this is captive-bred saltwater crocodiles, with some wild populations listed in Appendix I and others in Appendix II.
Welfare of animals
Many animals are kept for months in markets waiting to be sold. The welfare of animals in trade is almost universally poor, with the vast majority of animals failing to receive even the most basic freedom from pain, hunger, distress, discomfort, and few opportunities to express normal behaviour.[76] Reptiles specifically endure tight living spaces, torn claws and dehydration during capturing and transportation. Sometimes, they are also crushed from being stacked on top of each other.[77]
See also
- Environmental crime
- Ecocide
- Ivory trade
- Poaching
- Wildlife smuggling
- Wildlife farming
- African Vulture trade
- Pangolin trade
- Border control
- Endangered species
References
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{{cite journal}}
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Further reading
- Beirne, Piers (May 2021). "Wildlife Trade and COVID-19: Towards a Criminology of Anthropogenic Pathogen Spillover". The British Journal of Criminology. 61 (3). PMC 7953978. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
- Liew, Jia Huan; Lim, Rayson; et al. (2021). "International socioeconomic inequality drives trade patterns in the global wildlife market". PMID 33952526.
- Nellemann, Christian; et al., eds. (2014). The Environmental Crime Crisis: Threats to Sustainable Development From Illegal Exploitation and Trade in Wildlife and Forest Resources. Nairobi, Kenya; Arendal, Norway: United Nations Environment Programme; GRID-Arendal. ISBN 978-82-7701-132-5.
- Roe, Dilys (2002). Making a Killing Or Making a Living: Wildlife Trade, Trade Controls, and Rural Livelihoods. London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development. ISBN 978-1-84369-215-7.
External links
- CITES
- TRAFFIC − international NGO dedicated to ensuring that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to nature conservation
- ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network − wildlife law enforcement network
- FREELAND Foundation − international NGO dedicated to ending the illegal wildlife trade, conserving natural habitats and protecting human rights
- Wildlife Alliance − international NGO addressing wildlife trafficking and other crimes against nature
- Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA)
- The Species Survival Network − international coalition of over 80 NGOs committed to the promotion, enhancement, and strict enforcement of CITES
- Wildlife at Risk − combating the illegal wildlife trade in Vietnam
- Saving Vietnam's Wildlife
- People Not Poaching: The Communities and IWT Learning Platform
- Monitor Conservation Research Society (Monitor)