History of Tibet (1950–present): Difference between revisions

Content deleted Content added

Inline

Revision as of 23:36, 4 November 2017

The history of Tibet from 1950 to the present started with the Chinese

Invading Tibet in 1950. Before then, Tibet had unilaterally declared independence from China in 1913. In 1951, the Tibetans signed a seventeen-point agreement reaffirming China's sovereignty over Tibet and providing an autonomous administration led by Dalai Lama. In 1959 the 14th Dalai Lama fled Tibet to northern India where he established the Central Tibetan Administration. The Tibet Autonomous Region within China was officially established in 1965.^[1]

1950–1955: Traditional systems

In 1949, seeing that the Communists were gaining control of China, the

People's Republic of China (PRC) have maintained China's claim to sovereignty over Tibet. Many people felt that Tibet should not be part of China because they were constantly under attack in different ways rather often. Tibet had been its own country before 1951.^[3] In many eyes China seems to be trying to dismiss Tibet's culture, and has also been trying to do so worldwide.^[3] Because of the powerful Communist PRC government, Tibet has had to deal with political changes and various forms of oppression.^[4]

The

Seventeen Point Agreement which established PRC's sovereignty over Tibet, and it thereby gave the PRC power to rule.^[8] The agreement was ratified in Lhasa a few months later.^[9] According to the Tibetan government-in-exile, some members of the Tibetan Cabinet (Kashag), for example, Tibetan Prime Minister Lukhangwa, never accepted the agreement.^[10] But the National Assembly of Tibet, "while recognizing the extenuating circumstances under which the delegates had to sign the 'agreement', asked the government to accept the 'agreement'...the Kashag told Zhang Jingwu that it would radio its acceptance of the 'agreement'."^[11]

Tibetan exile sources generally consider it invalid, as having been reluctantly or unwillingly signed under duress.

highways that reached Lhasa, and then extended them to the Indian, Nepalese and Pakistani

borders.

Tibetan areas in

struggle sessions",^[17] torture, maiming, and even death.^[18]^[19] It was only after 1959 that China brought the same practices to Central Tibet.^[20]^[21]

1956–1958: Trials and incremental reform

By 1956 there was unrest in eastern Kham and Amdo, where land reform had been implemented in full. Rebellions erupted and eventually spread into western Kham and Ü-Tsang. In some parts of the country Chinese Communists tried to establish rural communes, as they were in the whole of China.^[citation needed]

A rebellion against the Chinese occupation was led by noblemen and monasteries and broke out in

CIA,^[22]

eventually spread to Lhasa.

The

guerilla fighters hands. During this campaign, tens of thousands of Tibetans were killed.^[23]

For many, their religious beliefs were not even left untouched by the communist influence. Those who practice Buddhism, as well as the Dali Lama, were not safe from harm at this time. It came to the point where the Chinese government had caused a suppression of religion and in the end felt threatened by the Dali Lama. What the Chinese government had thought to do was to kidnap and harm him. India ended up being the country that provided the safest land for the Tibetans and the Dali Lama who wanted to practice Buddhism in peace and be safe at the same time.

In 1959, China's socialist land reforms and military crackdown on rebels in Kham and Amdo led to the

CIA to India, because the people of Tibet wanted to take a stance and protect the man they all cherished, from the communist government .^[26]^[27] India ended up being the country that provided the safest land for the Tibetans and the Dali Lama who wanted to practice Buddhism in peace and be safe at the same time. On 28 March,^[28] the Chinese set the Panchen Lama (who was virtually their prisoner^[29]) as a figurehead in Lhasa, claiming that he headed the legitimate Government of Tibet in the absence of the Dalai Lama, the traditional ruler of Tibet.^[30]

After this, resistance forces operated from

Kingdom of Mustang with a force of 2000 rebels; many of them trained at Camp Hale near Leadville, Colorado, United States^[31]

Guerrilla warfare continued in other parts of the country for several years.

In 1969, on the eve of Kissinger's overtures to China, American support was withdrawn and the Nepalese government dismantled the operation.^{[citation needed]}

1959–1976: Uprising and upheaval

1959 uprising

Armed conflict between

socialist reform. The guerrilla warfare

later spread to other areas of Tibet.

In March 1959 a revolt erupted in

Communist Party of China since the Seventeen Point Agreement in 1951.^[32] On 12 March, protesters appeared in the streets of Lhasa declaring Tibet's independence. Within days, Tibetan troops prepared to secure an evacuation route for the Dalai Lama, who fled into exile during the uprising. Artillery shells landed near the Dalai Lama's Palace,^[33] prompting the full force of the Uprising. Combat lasted only about two days, with Tibetan rebel forces being badly outnumbered and poorly armed.^[34]

Reprisals for the 1959 Tibetan uprising involved the killing of 87,000 Tibetans by the Chinese count, according to a Radio Lhasa broadcast of 1 October 1960, although Tibetan exiles claim that 430,000 died during the Uprising and the subsequent 15 years of guerrilla warfare, which continued until the US withdrew support.^[35]

Famine

China suffered widespread famine between the years 1959 and 1961. The causes are disputed. Drought and poor weather played a part and the policies of the Great Leap Forward contributed to the famine, but the relative weights of each are in dispute. Estimates of deaths vary; according to official government statistics, there were 15 million deaths.^[36] Unofficial estimates by scholars have estimated the number of famine victims to be between 20 and 43 million.^[37]

In May 1962, the

natural disasters, which was the situation understood in Beijing by Chairman Mao and the Central People's Government.^[40] The Panchen Lama also described the uniqueness of the famine that Tibet suffered from: "There was never such an event in the history of Tibet. People could not even imagine such horrible starvation in their dreams. In some areas if one person catches a cold, then it spreads to hundreds and large numbers simply die."^[40] The destruction of most^[quantify] of Tibet's more than 6,000 monasteries happened between 1959 and 1961.^[41]

The

Haidong Prefecture, a part of Qinghai province whose population is 90% non-Tibetan and does not belong to “cultural Tibet”. Exiled Tibetan writer Jamyang Norbu^[42]

accuses Sautman of downplaying PRC activities in Tibet and Xinjiang.

Sautman also stated that the claim that Tibet was the region most hit by China’s famine of 1959–1962 is based not on statistics gathered in Tibetan areas, but on anonymous refugee reports lacking in numerical specificity.[43] Sautman's conclusions recently subjected to criticism.^[44]

ICJ Human rights report

Background

Under the 1951

Government of Tibet was entitled to repudiate the Agreement as it did on March 11, 1959.^[45]

Occupation and genocide

In 1960 the CIA-funded

cultural revolution began.^[45] The ICJ also documented accounts of massacres, tortures and killings, bombardment of monasteries, and extermination of whole nomad camps^[24] Declassified Soviet archives provides data that Chinese communists, who received a great assistance in military equipment from the USSR, broadly used Soviet aircraft for bombing monasteries and other punitive operations in Tibet.^[46]

The ICJ examined evidence relating to human rights within the structure of the

social rights, they found that the Chinese communist authorities had violated Article 3, 5, 9, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26 and 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Tibet.^[45]

Cultural suppression

The Tibetans were not allowed to participate in the

set out to destroy, according to the ICJ. The ICJ discovered that Chinese allegations that the Tibetans enjoyed no human rights before the entry of the Chinese were based on distorted and exaggerated accounts of life in Tibet. Accusations against the Tibetan "rebels" of rape, plunder and torture were found in cases of plunder to have been deliberately fabricated and in other cases unworthy of belief for this and other reasons.^[45]

In spite of claims by the Chinese that most of the damage to Tibet's institutions occurred subsequently during the

Red Guards, which included Tibetan members,^[47] inflicted a campaign of organized vandalism against cultural sites in the entire PRC, including Buddhist sites in Tibet.^[48] According to at least one Chinese source, only a handful of the most important monasteries remained without major damage.^[49]

Criticism of report

According to various authors, the 1959 and 1960 ICJ reports date back to a time when that organization was funded by the CIA.

anti-communist propaganda.^[53] This contrasts with the official overview of the International Commission of Jurists, which is "dedicated to the primacy, coherence and implementation of international law and principles that advance human rights" and the "impartial, objective and authoritative legal approach to the protection and promotion of human rights through the rule of law" while providing "legal expertise at both the international and national levels to ensure that developments in international law adhere to human rights principles and that international standards are implemented at the national level."^[54]

Establishment of TAR

In 1965, the area that had been under the control of the Dalai Lama's government from 1951 to 1959 (Ü-Tsang and western Kham) was renamed the

head of government would be an ethnic Tibetan; however, the TAR head is always subordinate to the First Secretary of the Tibet Autonomous Regional Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, who was not a Tibetan.^[55] The role of ethnic Tibetans in the higher levels of the TAR Communist Party was very limited.^[56]

Cultural revolution

The Cultural Revolution launched in 1966 was a catastrophe for Tibet, as it was for the rest of the PRC. Large numbers of Tibetans died violent deaths due to it, and the number of intact monasteries in Tibet was reduced from thousands to less than ten. Tibetan resentment towards the Chinese deepened.^[57] Tibetans participated in the destruction, but it is not clear how many of them actually embraced the Communist ideology and how many participated out of fear of becoming targets themselves.^[58] Resistors against the Cultural Revolution included Thrinley Chodron, a nun from Nyemo, who led an armed rebellion that spread through eighteen xians (counties) of the TAR, targeting Chinese Party officials and Tibetan collaborators, that was ultimately suppressed by the PLA. Citing Tibetan Buddhist symbols which the rebels invoked, Shakya calls this 1969 revolt "a millenarian uprising, an insurgency characterized by a passionate desire to be rid of the oppressor."^[59]

Demographic repercusssions

Warren W. Smith, a broadcaster of

Tom Grunfeld also finds that the figure is "without documentary evidence."^[64] There were, however, many casualties, perhaps as many as 400,000.^[65] Smith, calculating from census reports of Tibet, shows 144,000 to 160,000 "missing" from Tibet".^[66] Courtois et al. forward a figure of 800,000 deaths and allege that as many as 10% of the Tibetan populace were interned, with few survivors.^[67] Chinese demographers have estimated that 90,000 of the 300,000 "missing" Tibetans fled the region.^[68] The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) denies this. Its official toll of deaths recorded for the whole of China for the years of the Great Leap Forward is 14 million, but scholars have estimated the number of the famine victims to be between 20 and 43 million.^[69]

The Government of Tibet in Exile quotes an issue of People's Daily published in 1959 to claim that the Tibetan population has dropped significantly since 1959, counting the population of the Tibet Autonomous region but Qinghai, Gansu, and other regions inhabited by Tibetans, as the "Tibetan population". Compared as a whole to the 2000 numbers, the population in these regions has decreased, it says.^[70] These findings are in conflict with a 1954 Chinese census report that counted ethnic Tibetans.^[71] This is because in all of these provinces, Tibetans were not the only traditional ethnic group. This is held to be so especially in Qinghai, which has a historical mixture of different groups of ethnics. In 1949, Han Chinese made up 48.3% of the population, the rest of the ethnic groups make up 51.7% of the 1.5 million total population.^[72] As of today, Han Chinese account for 54% of the total population of Qinghai, which is slightly higher than in 1949. Tibetans make up around 20% of the population of Qinghai.^{[citation needed]} Detailed analysis of statistical data from Chinese and Tibetan emigrant sources revealed errors in estimates of Tibetan population by regions. Although it may contain errors, data from the Government of Tibet in Exile was found to be in better correspondence with the known facts than any other existing estimates. With respect to total population of the whole Tibet in 1953 and 1959, the Tibetan side appears to provide numbers that are too high, while the Chinese side provides numbers that are too low.^[73]

On June 20, 1959 in Mussoorie during a press conference, the Dalai Lama stated: "The ultimate Chinese aim with regard to Tibet, as far as I can make out, seems to attempt the extermination of religion and culture and even the absorption of the Tibetan race...Besides the civilian and military personnel already in Tibet, five million Chinese settlers have arrived in eastern and north-eastern Tso, in addition to which four million Chinese settlers are planned to be sent to U and Sung provinces of Central Tibet. Many Tibetans have been deported, thereby resulting in the complete absorption of these Tibetans as a race, which is being undertaken by the Chinese." ^[74]

1976–1987: Rapprochement and internationalization

Following Mao's death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping launched initiatives of rapprochement with the exiled Tibetan leaders, hoping to persuade them to come to live in China. Ren Rong, who was Communist Party Secretary in Tibet, thought that Tibetans in Tibet were happy under Chinese Communist rule and that they shared the Chinese Communist views of the pre-Communist Tibetan rulers as oppressive despots. So, when delegations from the Tibetan government in exile visited Tibet in 1979-80, Chinese officials expected to impress the Tibetan exiles with the progress that had occurred since 1950 and with the contentment of the Tibetan populace. Ren even organized meetings in Lhasa to urge Tibetans to restrain their animosity towards the coming representatives of an old, oppressive regime. The Chinese, then, were astonished and embarrassed at the massive, tearful expressions of devotion which Tibetans made to the visiting Tibetan exiles. Thousands of Tibetans cried, prostrated, offered scarves to the visitors, and strove for a chance to touch the Dalai Lama's brother.^[75]

These events also prompted Party Secretary

migrant workers, though the actual number of this floating population

remains disputed.

New meetings between Chinese officials and exiled leaders took place in 1981–1984, but no agreements could be reached.[78]

In 1986–1987, the Tibetan government in exile in Dharamshala launched a new drive to win international support for their cause as a human rights issue. In response, the United States House of Representatives in June 1987 passed a resolution in support of Tibetan human rights.^[79] Between September 1987 and March 1989, four major demonstrations occurred in Lhasa against Chinese rule.^[80] American Tibetologist Melvyn Goldstein considered the riots to be spontaneous mass expressions of Tibetan resentment, sparked in part by hope that the United States would soon provide support or pressure enabling Tibet to become independent.^[81] In 1987, the Panchen Lama delivered a speech estimating the number of prison deaths in Qinghai at approximately 5 percent of the total population in the area.^[82] The United States passed a 1988–1989 Foreign Relations Act which expressed support for Tibetan human rights.^[79] The riots ironically discredited Hu's more liberal Tibetan policies and brought about a return to hard-line policies; Beijing even imposed martial law in Tibet in 1989. Emphasis on economic development brought increasing numbers of non-Tibetans to Lhasa, and the economy in Tibet became increasingly dominated by Han. Lhasa became a city where non-Tibetans equalled or outnumbered Tibetans.^[83]

When the 10th Panchen Lama addressed the Tibet Autonomous Region Standing Committee Meeting of the National People’s Congress in 1987, he detailed mass imprisonment and killings of Tibetans in Amdo (Qinghai): "there were between three to four thousand villages and towns, each having between three to four thousand families with four to five thousand people. From each town and village, about 800 to 1,000 people were imprisoned. Out of this, at least 300 to 400 people of them died in prison...In Golok area, many people were killed and their dead bodies were rolled down the hill into a big ditch. The soldiers told the family members and relatives of the dead people that they should all celebrate since the rebels had been wiped out. They were even forced to dance on the dead bodies. Soon after, they were also massacred with machine guns. They were all buried there"^[84]

1988–present

10th Panchen Lama died. Many Tibetans believe that Hu was involved in his unexpected death.^[85] A few months later, according to Tang Daxian, a dissident journalist, the police in Lhasa received orders from General Li Lianxiu to provoke an incident. Peaceful demonstrations lead to the death of 450 Tibetans that year.^[86] The fourth national census was conducted in 1990, finding 4,590,000 ethnic Tibetans in China, including 2,090,000 in the TAR. The Chinese government compares these numbers to the first national census to conclude that the Tibetan population has doubled since 1951.^[16]

In 1995, the Dalai Lama named 6 year old Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as the 11th Panchen Lama without the approval of the government of China, while the PRC named another child, Gyaincain Norbu in conflict with the Dalai Lama's choice. Gyaincain Norbu was raised in Tibet and Beijing and makes frequent public appearances in religion and politics. The PRC-selected Panchen Lama is rejected by exiled Tibetans who commonly refer to him as the "Panchen Zuma" (literally "fake Panchen Lama").^[87] Gedhun Choekyi Nyima and his family are missing: kidnapped, says Amnesty International, or living under a secret identity for protection and privacy, says Beijing.^[87]

Economic development

In 2000, the Chinese government launched its

Qinghai-Tibet Railway. Such projects however, have roused fears of facilitating military mobilisation and Han migration.^[88] Robert Barnett reports that the economic stimulus was used by hardliners to stimulate Han migration to Tibet as a control mechanism, and that 66% of official posts in Tibet are held by Han.^[89] There is still an ethnic imbalance in appointments and promotions to the civil and judicial services in the Tibetan Autonomous Region, with disproportionately few ethnic Tibetans appointed to these posts.^[90]

The PRC government claims that its rule over Tibet has provided economic development to Tibetan people, and that the

reform and opening up under Deng Xiaoping.^[92]

The government, in turn, rejects claims that the lives of Tibetans have deteriorated, and states that the lives of Tibetans have been improved immensely compared to self-rule before 1950.[93] Despite China's claims that the lives of Tibetans have improved immensely, a 2004 book claimed some 3,000 Tibetans brave hardship and danger to flee into exile every year.^[94] In addition, Human Rights Watch reports continued widespread abuses committed by Chinese security forces^[95] and torture by Chinese police and security forced.^[96]

The PRC claims that from 1951 to 2007, the Tibetan population in Lhasa-administered Tibet has increased from 1.2 million to almost 3 million. The

Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso) It also highlights the allocation of 300 million Renminbi since the 1980s for the maintenance and protection of Tibetan monasteries.^[98] The Cultural Revolution and the cultural damage it wrought upon the entire PRC is generally condemned as a nationwide catastrophe, whose main instigators, in the PRC's view, the Gang of Four, have been brought to justice. The China Western Development plan is viewed by the PRC as a massive, benevolent, and patriotic undertaking by the wealthier eastern coast to help the western parts of China, including Tibet, catch up in prosperity and living standards.^{[citation needed}

]

In 2008 the Chinese government "launched a 570-million-yuan (81.43 million U.S. dollars) project to preserve 22 historical and cultural heritage sites in Tibet, including the Zhaxi Lhunbo Lamasery as well as the Jokhang, Ramogia, Sanyai and Samgya-Goutog monasteries."[100]

Tibetan language

According to Barry Sautman, 92–94% of ethnic Tibetans speak

Tibetan. Among those who do not are small Tibetan minorities in areas such as Qinghai

. Primary school instruction is conducted almost exclusively in Tibetan, but instruction is bilingual from secondary school onward.

Khams Tibetan a recently launched TV satellite channel in Chengdu, the provincial capital of Sichuan.^[104]

In October 2010, Tibetan students protested after the Chinese government published rules supporting the use of Mandarin Chinese in lessons and textbooks by 2015, with the exception of Tibetan language and English classes.[105]

Human rights in Tibet

File:2012 China's Agreesive Violence Against Tibetan People 中國極權暴力血腥攻擊西藏 - 圖博人.jpg

Chinese crackdown in Tibet, 2012

After the 2008 unrest, Tibetan-populated areas of China remained tightly sealed off from outside scrutiny, according to Amnesty International. While Chinese authorities announced after the protests that over 1,000 individuals detained had been released, overseas Tibetan organizations claimed that at least several hundred remained in detention by the start of 2009. Following the detentions were reports of torture and other ill-treatment in detention, some cases resulting in death.^[106] Religious repression included locking down major monasteries and nunneries, and a propaganda campaign where local authorities renewed “Patriotic Education,” which required Tibetans to participate in criticism sessions of the Dalai Lama and sign written denunciations of him, according to Amnesty's 2009 China report. Tibetan members of the Chinese Communist Party were also targeted, including being made to remove their children from Tibet exile community schools where they would have received a religious education.^[106] According to former political prisoners Tibet is virtually a big prison.^[107]

2008 unrest

Protests in March, 2008 developed into riots in which Tibetan mobs attacked Han and Hui people in Lhasa. The Chinese government reacted curtly, imposing curfews and pressuring journalists in Lhasa to leave the region.^[108] The international response was measured, with a number of leaders expressing concern. Some people protested in large European and North American cities and chanted slogans, with some supporting China's actions and some supporting the protesters in Tibet.

For a time after the 2008 unrest, Tibetan-populated areas of China remained off-limits to journalists, and major monasteries and nunneries were locked down, according to Amnesty International. While Chinese authorities announced after the unrest that over 1,000 individuals detained had been released, Tibetan exile organizations claimed that at least several hundred remained in detention by the start of 2009. Tibetan members of the Chinese Communist Party were told to remove their children from Tibet exile community schools.^[106]

Ethnic composition

The issue of the proportion of the Han population in Tibet is a politically sensitive one and is disputed, involving the

Government of Tibet in Exile

, the PRC, and the Tibetan independence movement.

The Government of Tibet in Exile has said that government policies are sinicizing Tibet by encouraging the migration of non-ethnic Tibetans, especially Han and Hui, so that they outnumber ethnic Tibetans in the Tibetan region.^[109] Some non-Tibetans migrating to the area may end up assimilating into and adapting to the Tibetan culture of the area to a degree, given its significance in the local culture. But if they adapt a more distinct identity to the Tibetans, Tibetan culture would be more likely to become endangered, particularly if Tibetans are the minority. The PRC gives the number of Tibetans in the Tibet Autonomous Region as 2.4 million, as opposed to 190,000 non-Tibetans, and the number of Tibetans in all Tibetan autonomous entities combined (slightly smaller than the Greater Tibet claimed by exiled Tibetans) as 5.0 million, as opposed to 2.3 million non-Tibetans. In the TAR itself, much of the Han population is to be found in Lhasa.^[110]

This statistic is in dispute primarily based on the distinction between the area often referred to as "

Greater Tibet", in which ethnic Tibetans are a minority in the overall population, and the Tibet Autonomous Region, in which ethnic Tibetans are a majority. Qinghai, which is claimed by Tibetan exile groups, is made up of many ranging cultures local to different regions within the Province. Tibetan culture is local to and alive in many villages and towns throughout Qinghai.^[111]

Some of Tibet's towns and villages are located in India and Nepal. The total population for Tibetans in India is given at 94,203, and 13,514 in Nepal. One example of this is the city of Leh in in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, with a population of 27,513. The people of Leh are ethnic Tibetan, speaking Ladakhi, an East Tibetan language. Along with this, there are several Tibetan villages in northern Nepal. These regions are currently not claimed by Tibetan Exile Groups.^[112]^[113]^[114]

Greater Tibet as claimed by the government of Tibet in Exile.^[117] The PRC government claims that the ethnically Tibetan areas outside the TAR were not controlled by the Tibetan government before 1959 in the first place, having been administered instead by other surrounding provinces for centuries. It further alleges that the idea of "Greater Tibet" was originally engineered by foreign imperialists in order to divide China amongst themselves (Mongolia being a striking precedent, gaining independence with Soviet backing and subsequently aligning itself with the Soviet Union).^[118]

The Government of Tibet in Exile disputes most demographic statistics released by the PRC government since they do not include members of the

Jampa Phuntsok, chairman of the TAR, has said that the central government has no policy of migration into Tibet due to its harsh high-altitude conditions, that the 6% Han in the TAR is a very fluid group mainly doing business or working, and that there is no immigration problem. (This report includes both permanent and temporary residences in Tibet, but excludes Tibetans studying or working outside of the TAR).^[119] By 2006, 3% of the permanent residences in Tibet were of Han ethnicity, according to National Bureau of Statistics of China.^[110] The TAR has the lowest population density among China's province-level administrative regions, mostly due to its mountainous and harsh geographical features. As of 2000, 92.8% of the population were ethnic Tibetans, while Han Chinese comprised 6.1% of the population. In Lhasa, the capital of TAR, Hans made up 17%, far less than what many activists have claimed. Population control policies like the one-child policy apply only to Han Chinese, not to minorities such as Tibetans.^[120]

Review of different sources revealed that under the Mao Zedong rule from 3% to 30% of Tibetans perished^[121]

Barry Sautman accused pro-independence forces of wanting the Tibetan areas cleansed of Han and the Dalai Lama of consistently misrepresenting the present situation as one of a Han majority. The Tibetan countryside, where three-fourths of the population lives, has very few non-Tibetans.^[122]

Sautman also stated:

[The settlers] are not personally subsidized by the state; although like urban Tibetans, they are indirectly subsidized by infrastructure development that favors the towns. Some 85% of Han who migrate to Tibet to establish businesses fail; they generally leave within two to three years. Those who survive economically offer competition to local Tibetan business people, but a comprehensive study in Lhasa has shown that non-Tibetans have pioneered small and medium enterprise sectors that some Tibetans have later entered and made use of their local knowledge to prosper.

Tibetans are not simply an underclass; there is a substantial Tibetan middle class, based in government service, tourism, commerce, and small-scale manufacturing/ transportation. There are also many unemployed or under-employed Tibetans, but almost no unemployed or underemployed Han because those who cannot find work leave.

In a Writenet paper written for the

UNHCR, Professor Colin Mackerras (using PRC censuses) expresses the view that claims such as that the Chinese are swamping Tibetans in their own country and that 1.2 million Tibetans have died due to Chinese occupation "should be treated with the deepest skepticism":^[123]

The figures show that since the early 1960s, the Tibetan population has been increasing, probably for the first time for centuries. What seems to follow from this is that the TGIE’s allegations of population reduction due to Chinese rule probably have some validity for the 1950s but are greatly exaggerated. However, since the 1960s, Chinese rule has had the effect of increasing the population of the Tibetans, not decreasing it, largely due to a modernization process that has improved the standard of living and lowered infant, maternity and other mortality rates.

Statistics according to the National Bureau of Statistics of China

Major ethnic groups in Greater Tibet by region, 2000 census.
	Total	Tibetans		Han Chinese		others
Tibet Autonomous Region:	2,616,329	2,427,168	92.8%	158,570	6.1%	30,591	1.2%
– Lhasa PLC	474,499	387,124	81.6%	80,584	17.0%	6,791	1.4%
– Qamdo Prefecture	586,152	563,831	96.2%	19,673	3.4%	2,648	0.5%
– Shannan Prefecture	318,106	305,709	96.1%	10,968	3.4%	1,429	0.4%
– Xigazê Prefecture	634,962	618,270	97.4%	12,500	2.0%	4,192	0.7%
– Nagqu Prefecture	366,710	357,673	97.5%	7,510	2.0%	1,527	0.4%
– Ngari Prefecture	77,253	73,111	94.6%	3,543	4.6%	599	0.8%
– Nyingchi Prefecture	158,647	121,450	76.6%	23,792	15.0%	13,405	8.4%
Qinghai Province:	4,822,963	1,086,592	22.5%	2,606,050	54.0%	1,130,321	23.4%
– Xining PLC	1,849,713	96,091	5.2%	1,375,013	74.3%	378,609	20.5%
– Haidong Prefecture	1,391,565	128,025	9.2%	783,893	56.3%	479,647	34.5%
– Haibei AP	258,922	62,520	24.1%	94,841	36.6%	101,561	39.2%
– Huangnan AP	214,642	142,360	66.3%	16,194	7.5%	56,088	26.1%
– Hainan AP	375,426	235,663	62.8%	105,337	28.1%	34,426	9.2%
– Golog AP	137,940	126,395	91.6%	9,096	6.6%	2,449	1.8%
– Gyêgu AP	262,661	255,167	97.1%	5,970	2.3%	1,524	0.6%
– Haixi AP	332,094	40,371	12.2%	215,706	65.0%	76,017	22.9%
Tibetan areas in Sichuan province
– Ngawa AP	847,468	455,238	53.7%	209,270	24.7%	182,960	21.6%
– Garzê AP	897,239	703,168	78.4%	163,648	18.2%	30,423	3.4%
– Muli AC	124,462	60,679	48.8%	27,199	21.9%	36,584	29.4%
Tibetan areas in Yunnan province
– Dêqên AP	353,518	117,099	33.1%	57,928	16.4%	178,491	50.5%
Tibetan areas in Gansu province
– Gannan AP	640,106	329,278	51.4%	267,260	41.8%	43,568	6.8%
– Tianzhu AC	221,347	66,125	29.9%	139,190	62.9%	16,032	7.2%
Total for Greater Tibet:
With Xining and Haidong	10,523,432	5,245,347	49.8%	3,629,115	34.5%	1,648,970	15.7%
Without Xining and Haidong	7,282,154	5,021,231	69.0%	1,470,209	20.2%	790,714	10.9%

This table

Greater Tibet

by the Government of Tibet in exile.

P = Prefecture; AP = Autonomous prefecture; PLC = Prefecture-level city; AC = Autonomous county.

Excludes members of the People's Liberation Army in active service.

Han settlers in the cities have steadily increased since then. But a preliminary analysis of the 2005 mini-census shows only a modest increase in Han population in the TAR from 2000–2005 and little change in eastern Tibet.

References

Citations

^ "Tibet profile".
^ Shakya 1999, pp. 7–8
^ ^a ^b Hessler, Peter. "Tibet Through Chinese Eyes". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2017-04-26.
^ ^a ^b "Issue #56: Tibet under the Rule of the Chinese Communist Party | International Campaign for Tibet". www.savetibet.org. Retrieved 2017-04-26.
^ "TIBET (AUTONOMY)". millbanksystems.com. Retrieved 26 September 2015.
^ ^a ^b Laird 2006, p. 301
^ Goldstein 2007, p96
^ "Seventeen-Point Plan for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 2017-04-26.
^ Goldstein 1989, pp. 812–813
^ In 1952 Lukhangwa told PRC Representative Zhang Jingwu "It was absurd to refer to the terms of the Seventeen-Point Agreement. Our people did not accept the agreement and the Chinese themselves had repeatedly broken the terms of it. Their army was still in occupation of eastern Tibet; the area had not been returned to the government of Tibet, as it should have been." My Land and My People, Dalai Lama, New York, 1992, p.95
^ ^a ^b "Encouraged By Rising Support From Intellectuals in China: His Holiness the Dalai Lama". tibet.net. Archived from the original on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2015. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ Powers 2004, pp. 116–7
^ Michel Peissel, "The Cavaliers of Kham, the secret war in Tibet" London: Heinemann 1972, and Boston: Little, Brown & Co. 1973
Dalai Lama, Freedom in Exile
Harper San Francisco, 1991

^ ^a ^b ^c Goldstein 2007, p541

^ ^a ^b Population of Tibet 1950–1990 Archived 2007-11-24 at the Wayback Machine Template:Link language

Lhasa dialect: [[Help:IPA/Tibetan|[[tʰʌ́msiŋ]
]]]

^ Craig (1992), pp. 76–78, 120–123.

^ Shakya (1999), pp. 245–249, 296, 322–323.

^ Laird 2006, p. 318

^ Guangming Daily. "Unforgettable History—Old Tibet Serfdom System" (in Chinese). Retrieved 2008-04-29.

Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original
on 2008-08-30.

^ Laird 2006, pp. 320–328

^ ^a ^b "Why Concerned About Tibet? - Friends of Tibet (INDIA)". friendsoftibet.org. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

^ "Witness: Reporting on the Dalai Lama's escape to India." Peter Jackson. Reuters. Feb 27, 2009.[1]

^ The CIA's secret war in Tibet, Seattle Times, January 26, 1997, Paul Salopek Ihttp://www.timbomb.net/buddha/archive/msg00087.html

ISBN 9788120813717
.

^ Wong, Edward (20 January 2009). "Holiday for Tibet Is a Swipe at the Dalai Lama". The New York Times. p. 13. Retrieved 28 March 2011.

^ Shakya (1999), p. 193.

^ Shakya (1999), p. 128.

^ Air America, Corgi Books. Tim Robbins. 1988.

^ Chen Jian, The Tibetan Rebellion of 1959 and China’s Changing Relations with India and the Soviet Union, Journal of Cold War Studies, Volume 8 Issue 3 Summer 2006, Cold War Studies at Harvard University.

ISBN 978-0-231-11814-9
pp. 186-191

^ Chushi Gangdruk Archived 2008-03-25 at the Wayback Machine

^ "Tibet Online - Why Tibet? - Major Allegations on the Chinese Occupation". tibet.org. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

^ Ó Gráda, Famine: A Short History, p.95

^ Peng Xizhe (彭希哲), "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces," Population and Development Review 13, no. 4 (1987), 639–70.

^ Kurtenbach, Elaine (February 11, 1998). "1962 report by Tibetan leader tells of mass beatings, starvation". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2001-07-21. Retrieved 2016-04-18.

^ ^a ^b "Secret Report by the Panchen Lama Criticises China"

^ ^a ^b "Samsara: 1962 Panchen Lama Report". subliminal.org. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

^ ^a ^b Craig (1992), p. 125.

^ Jamyang, Norbu. "Running-dog Propagandists". Phayul. Retrieved 10 May 2016.

^ Barry Sautman, "Demographic Annihilation" and Tibet, pp. 230–257, in Barry Sautman, June Teufel Dreyer (eds), Contemporary Tibet: politics, development, and society in a disputed region, M. E. Sharpe, 2006, 360 p.

^ Kuzmin, S.L. Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation. Dharamsala, LTWA, 2011, pp. 340–341

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Tibet Justice Center - Legal Materials on Tibet - Governmental and NGOs - ICJ Report on Tibet and China (excerpt) (1960) [p.346]". tibetjustice.org. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

^ Kuzmin, S.L. Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation. Dharamsala, LTWA, 2011

^ Shakya (1999), p. 320.

^ Shakya (1999), pp. 314–347.

^ Wang 2001, pp. 212–214

^ A. Tom Grunfeld, Tibet and the United States, in Barry Sautman and June Teufel Dreyer (eds), Contemporary Tibet: politics, development, and society in a disputed region, M. E. Sharpe, 2006, 360 p., pp. 319–349, p. 329:
The United States also took advantage of the Dalai Lama's having left Tibet by having the CIA revive its Cold War propaganda machine, creating supposedly popular organizations such as the American Emergency Committee for Tibetan Refugees, prodding its clandestinely funded Cold War human rights organizations such as the International Commission of Jurists to prepare propagandistic reports attacking China
.

^ Howard B. Tolley Jr., The International Commission of Jurists, Global Advocates for Human Rights, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1944, XVII p. + 344 p.

^ Richard Pierre Claude, review of Howard B. Tolley Jr., The International Commission of Jurists: Global Advocates for Humam Rights, in Human Rights Quarterly, August 1994:
Based on the documentation and named respondents, the authors present the tale of the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in secretly bankrolling the formation of the ICJ as an instrument of the cold war. (...) Tolley shows that the tainted source of funding was unknown to most ICJ officers and members
.

^ Dorothy Stein, People Who Count. Population and Politics, Women and Children, Earthscan Publications, London, 1995, XI + 239 p., pp. 193–104, note 27:
The ICJ itself grew out of a group created by American intelligence agents whose purpose was disseminating anti-communist propaganda. It too has received funds from the CIA, which is not a notable rights organization, nor, which is more to the point, particularly noted for its interest in truth. The 1960 LIC report, Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic (ICJ, Geneva: 1990), shows strong signs of bias in accepting or rejecting the testimonies cited
.

^ http://www.icj.org/default.asp?nodeID=441&langage=1&myPage=Overview

^ Dodin (2008), pp. 205.

^ Dodin (2008), pp. 195–196.

^ Powers 2004, pp. 141–2

^ Powers 2004, pg. 185

^ "Blood in the Snows(Reply to Wang Lixiong)". Retrieved 2009-03-02.

ISBN 1-4000-4100-7
, pp. 278–82

^ Smith 1997, p. 600

^ 'Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts' Archived 2007-06-15 at the Wayback Machine, The Department of Information and International Relations: Central Tibetan Administration, 1996. p. 53

^ ^a ^b Barry Sautman, June Teufel Dreyer, Contemporary Tibet: Politics, Development, And Society In A Disputed Region pp. 239

^ Grunfeld 1996, p. 247.

^ French 2003, pp. 278–82

^ Smith 1997, p. 600–1 n. 8

^ Courtois 1997, p. 545–6, (cites Kewly, Tibet p. 255)

^ Yan Hao, 'Tibetan Population in China: Myths and Facts Re-examined', Asian Ethnicity, Volume 1, No. 1, March 2000, p.24

^ Peng Xizhe (彭希哲), "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces," Population and Development Review 13, no. 4 (1987), 639–70.
For a summary of other estimates, please refer to this link

^ People's Daily, Beijing, 10 November 1959, in Population transfer and control

^ 1954 Chinese Census Report Archived 2009-08-05 at the Wayback Machine Template:Link language

^ Template:Zh icon Qinghai Population [2]

^ Kuzmin, S.L. Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation. Dharamsala, LTWA, 2011, pp. 334–340

^ "Tibet Justice Center - Legal Materials on Tibet - Governmental and NGOs - ICJ Report on the Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law (excerpt) (1959) [p.342]". tibetjustice.org. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

^ Goldstein 1997, pp. 61–3

^ Goldstein 1997, pp. 63–66

^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2006-11-06. Retrieved 2006-10-21. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Tibet, China and the United States: Reflections on the Tibet Question,by Melvyn C. Goldstein

^ Goldstein 1997, pp. 67–74

^ ^a ^b Goldstein 1997, pp. 75–78

^ Goldstein 1997, pp. 79–83

^ Goldstein 1997, pp. 83–87

ISBN 978-0-520-24928-8
(pbk).

^ Goldstein 1997, pp. 87–99

^ "Acme of Obscenity". Archived from the original on 2010-07-04. Retrieved 2010-03-28. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

^ "BBC NEWS - Asia-Pacific - Profile: Hu Jintao". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

^ Chinese Said to Kill 450 Tibetans in 1989

^ ^a ^b http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA170071996 'Tibet: 6-year old boy missing and over 50 detained in Panchen Lama dispute', Amnesty International, 18 January 1996

^ "Train heads for Tibet, carrying fears of change / Migration, tourism likely to increase". SFGate. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

^ Robert Barnett's passages extracted from Steve Lehman, The Tibetans: Struggle to Survive, Umbrage Editions, New York, 1998., [3]

^ Personnel Changes in Lhasa Reveal Preference for Chinese Over Tibetans, Says TIN Report

^ Jiawei, Wang, "The Historical Status of China's Tibet", 2000, pp 194–7

^ Hilton 2000, pp. 192–194

^ Peter Hessler, 'Tibet Through Chinese Eyes', The Atlantic Monthly, Feb. 1999

^ Powers 2004, pg. 143

^ "Statement to the Human Rights Council on Tibet". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

^ "Beijing's Broken Promises on Human Rights". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

^ 'High wages in Tibet benefit the privileged', Asian Labour News, 21 February 2005,

^ ^a ^b 'Tibet's March Toward Modernization, section II The Rapid Social Development in Tibet', Information Office of the State Council of the PRC, November 2001

^ "Tibet: Basic Data". United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Archived from the original on 2004-02-20. Retrieved 2008-04-22. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

Xinhua
on-line news on Tibet

^ Elliot Sperling, Exile and Dissent: The Historical and Cultural Context, in TIBET SINCE 1950: SILENCE, PRISON, OR EXILE 31-36 (Melissa Harris & Sydney Jones eds., 2000), see The Historical and Cultural Context by Elliot Sperling

^ China launches Tibetan channel for India, Nepal, PTI, rediff NEWS, October 1, 2007: "China launched the first-ever 24-hour Tibetan language television channel on Monday to mark its 58th National Day (...). The channel only broadcast 11 hours a day when it was opened in 1999."

^ The wishes of a Tibetan, China Digital Times, March 27, 2009: "At present, the two most popular television channels in the Tibetan areas are the Qinghai Tibetan language channel and the Tibet Tibetan language channel"

^ Zhang Mingyu, Cheer up for opening khampa Tibetan TV Channel, tibet.new.cn, January 17, 2010.

^ Tibetan student protests spread to Beijing, The Guardian, 22 October 2010

^ ^a ^b ^c Amnesty International, State of the World's Human Rights: China, 2009, accessed 16 March 2010

^ "Tibet is virtually a big prison: Former political prisoners". thetibetpost.com. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

^ "China's Forbidden Zones". pp. 32–33. Retrieved 2010-03-11.

^ ^a ^b ^c "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-07-12. Retrieved 2009-07-12. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

^ ^a ^b National Bureau of Statistics of China Template:Link language

^ https://books.google.com/books?id=uod9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=%22become+tibetan%22&source=bl&ots=aIOjidSi1X&sig=rYBHaADmJxCDE3qmpOmb2EA2WkI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiR19fr3vDWAhXDRiYKHUJ0CPsQ6AEIQjAI#v=onepage&q&f=false

^ https://www.betterplace.org/en/projects/44869-help-for-the-tibetan-village-briddhim-in-northern-nepal

^ http://tibetdata.org/projects/population/

^ "Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)". Census Commission of India. Archived from the original on 2004-06-16. Retrieved 2008-11-01.

^ Dalai Lama accuses China of 'demographic aggression'

^ "Hu opens world's highest railway". BBC News. 2006-07-01. Retrieved 2010-05-25.

^ In aninterview May 31, 2008, the Dalai Lama declared: « "Greater Tibet", now, this very word comes from the Chinese government side. We never state the greater Tibet » His Holiness the Dalai Lama discusses the recent unrest inside Tibet with the editors of the Financial Times (FT) Archived 2009-10-14 at the Wayback Machine.

^ Xinhua News report Template:Link language

^ SINA News report Template:Link language

^ "中华人民共和国人口与计划生育法". www.gov.cn. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

^ Kuzmin, S.L. Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation. Dharamsala, LTWA, 2011.

^ Protests in Tibet and Separatism: the Olympics and Beyond

^ People’s Republic of China: Background paper on the situation of the Tibetan population, A Writenet Report by Professor Colin P. Mackerras, p. 19–20.

ISBN 7-105-05425-5
).

Sources

Craig, Mary. Tears of Blood: A Cry for Tibet (1992) INDUS an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers. Calcutta. Second impression, 1993.
ISBN 0-00-627500-1

Goldstein, Melvyn C. A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State (1989) University of California Press.
ISBN 978-0-520-06140-8

Goldstein, Melvyn C. The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet, and the Dalai Lama (1997) University of California Press.
ISBN 0-520-21951-1

Goldstein, Melvyn C. A History of Modern Tibet, Volume 2: The Calm Before the Storm: 1951–1955 (2007) University of California Press.
ISBN 978-0-520-24941-7

Harrer, Heinrich. Seven Years in Tibet. Rupert Hart-Davis, London (1953)

Harrer, Heinrich Return to Tibet: Tibet After the Chinese Occupation (1998) Jeremy P. Tarcher/ Putnam, New York
ISBN 0-87477-925-1

Hilton, Elizabeth. The Search for the Panchen Lama (2000) W. W. Norton & Company.
ISBN 0-393-04969-8

Kuzmin, Sergius. Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation (2011). Library of Tibetan Works & Archives.
ISBN 978-93-80359-47-2

ISBN 0-8021-1827-5

Powers, John. History as Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles versus the People's Republic of China (2004) Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-517426-7

Shakya, Tsering. The Dragon In The Land Of Snows (1999) Columbia University Press.
ISBN 0-231-11814-7

Smith, Warren W., Jr. Tibetan Nation: A History Of Tibetan Nationalism And Sino-Tibetan Relations (1997) Westview press.
ISBN 978-0-8133-3280-2

v
t
e
Tibet articles
History
Overviews

Timeline

List of rulers

European exploration

Historical money

Chronology

Prehistory (Neolithic)

Zhangzhung

Yarlung dynasty

Empire (7th–9th century)
Timeline

List of emperors

Lönchen

Relations with Tang (618–907)

Era of Fragmentation (9th–13th century)
Guge kingdom

Tsongkha

Relations with Song (960–1279)

Yuan dynasty rule (1270–1350)
Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs

Phagmodrupa dynasty
Relations with Ming (1368–1644)

Rinpungpa dynasty

Tsangpa dynasty

Ganden Phodrang
Kashag

Khoshut Khanate

Qing dynasty rule (1720–1912)
Lifan Yuan

List of Qing ambans

Post-Qing to 1950
Tibetan Army

People's Republic of China (PRC) rule
PRC annexation

political leaders

Wars and
conflicts

Tibetan attack on Songzhou

Battle of Dafei River

Mongol invasions of Tibet

Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal war

Battle of Dartsedo

Battle of the Salween River

Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)

Jinchuan campaigns

Lhasa riot of 1750

Sino-Nepalese War

Dogra–Tibetan War

Nepal-Tibet War (1855–1856)

Sikkim expedition

British expedition to Tibet

Batang uprising

Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)

Xinhai Lhasa turmoil

Sino-Tibetan War

Qinghai–Tibet War

1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet

1939 Japanese expedition to Tibet

Battle of Chamdo

Protests and uprisings since 1950
1959 Tibetan uprising

1987–1989 Tibetan unrest

2008 Tibetan unrest

Self-immolation protests by Tibetans in China

Special Frontier Force

Documents

Treaty of Tingmosgang (1684)

13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet (1751)

29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet (1793)

Treaty of Chushul (1842)

Treaty of Thapathali (1856)

Convention of Calcutta (1890)

Treaty of Lhasa (1904)

Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet (1906)

Anglo-Russian Convention (1907)

Treaty of friendship and alliance with Mongolia (1913)

Simla Accord (1914)

Seventeen Point Agreement (1951)

Sino-Indian Trade Agreement over Tibetan Border (1954)

70,000 Character Petition (1962)

Memorandum on Genuine Autonomy (2008)

Geography

Flora

Fauna

Environment

Mountains
Kailash

Lhotse / Changtse

Namcha Barwa

Tanggula

Rivers
Yarlung Tsangpo
Grand Canyon

Rongbuk Glacier

Tibetan Plateau
Changtang
Nature Reserve

Valleys

Traditional regions

Amdo

Kham

Ü-Tsang
Ngari

Politics

Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR)

Central Tibetan Administration
Parliament

Etymology of Tibet

Foreign relations

Human rights
LGBT

Patron and priest relationship

Golden Urn

Tibet Area

Independence movement

Serfdom controversy
Serfs' Emancipation Day

Sovereignty debate

CIA Tibetan program

India–Tibet relations

Government

Regional Government

TAR People's Government
TAR People's Congress

Economy

Postage and postal history

Qinghai-Tibet Highway

Qinghai–Tibet railway

Society

Education

Languages

Religion
Bon

Tibetan Buddhism
Sakya

Imperial Preceptor

Dpon-chen

Nyingma

Kagyu

Jonang

Gelug
Ganden Tripa

Dalai Lama
list

Lhamo La-tso

Panchen Lama
list

Catholicism

Islam

Sinicization

Social classes

Tibetan people
Changpa

Yolmo

Diaspora

Names

Culture

Art
rugs

thangka

tsakli

sand mandala

wall paintings

Calendar

Cuisine

Dzong architecture

Emblem

Festivals

Flag

Historical and cultural sites

Khata (ceremonial scarf)

Literature
Annals

Chronicle

writers

Music

Tibetology

Traditional medicine

Outline
Index

Category

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Tibet_(1950–present)&oldid=808757569"

[1] "Tibet profile".

[shakya7-8-2] Shakya 1999, pp. 7–8

[Hessler-3] Hessler, Peter. "Tibet Through Chinese Eyes". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2017-04-26.

[ReferenceA-4] "Issue #56: Tibet under the Rule of the Chinese Communist Party | International Campaign for Tibet". www.savetibet.org. Retrieved 2017-04-26.

[5] "TIBET (AUTONOMY)". millbanksystems.com. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

[Laird301-6] Laird 2006, p. 301

[7] Goldstein 2007, p96

[8] "Seventeen-Point Plan for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 2017-04-26.

[9] Goldstein 1989, pp. 812–813

[10] In 1952 Lukhangwa told PRC Representative Zhang Jingwu "It was absurd to refer to the terms of the Seventeen-Point Agreement. Our people did not accept the agreement and the Chinese themselves had repeatedly broken the terms of it. Their army was still in occupation of eastern Tibet; the area had not been returned to the government of Tibet, as it should have been." My Land and My People, Dalai Lama, New York, 1992, p.95

[tibet.net-11] "Encouraged By Rising Support From Intellectuals in China: His Holiness the Dalai Lama". tibet.net. Archived from the original on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2015. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[Powers116_7-12] Powers 2004, pp. 116–7

[Michel_Peissel-13] Michel Peissel, "The Cavaliers of Kham, the secret war in Tibet" London: Heinemann 1972, and Boston: Little, Brown & Co. 1973

[Tenzin_Gyatso-14] Dalai Lama, Freedom in Exile
Harper San Francisco, 1991

[goldstein2007-541-15] Goldstein 2007, p541

[pop-16] Population of Tibet 1950–1990 Archived 2007-11-24 at the Wayback Machine Template:Link language

[17] Lhasa dialect: [[Help:IPA/Tibetan|[[tʰʌ́msiŋ]
]]]

[18] Craig (1992), pp. 76–78, 120–123.

[19] Shakya (1999), pp. 245–249, 296, 322–323.

[20] Laird 2006, p. 318

[21] Guangming Daily. "Unforgettable History—Old Tibet Serfdom System" (in Chinese). Retrieved 2008-04-29.

[22] Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original
on 2008-08-30.

[23] Laird 2006, pp. 320–328

[friendsoftibet.org-24] "Why Concerned About Tibet? - Friends of Tibet (INDIA)". friendsoftibet.org. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

[25] "Witness: Reporting on the Dalai Lama's escape to India." Peter Jackson. Reuters. Feb 27, 2009.[1]

[26] The CIA's secret war in Tibet, Seattle Times, January 26, 1997, Paul Salopek Ihttp://www.timbomb.net/buddha/archive/msg00087.html

[27] ISBN 9788120813717
.

[28] Wong, Edward (20 January 2009). "Holiday for Tibet Is a Swipe at the Dalai Lama". The New York Times. p. 13. Retrieved 28 March 2011.

[29] Shakya (1999), p. 193.

[30] Shakya (1999), p. 128.

[31] Air America, Corgi Books. Tim Robbins. 1988.

[32] Chen Jian, The Tibetan Rebellion of 1959 and China’s Changing Relations with India and the Soviet Union, Journal of Cold War Studies, Volume 8 Issue 3 Summer 2006, Cold War Studies at Harvard University.

[shakya-1999-33] ISBN 978-0-231-11814-9
pp. 186-191

[chushigangdruk.org-34] Chushi Gangdruk Archived 2008-03-25 at the Wayback Machine

[35] "Tibet Online - Why Tibet? - Major Allegations on the Chinese Occupation". tibet.org. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

[36] Ó Gráda, Famine: A Short History, p.95

[xiz-37] Peng Xizhe (彭希哲), "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces," Population and Development Review 13, no. 4 (1987), 639–70.

[Kurtenbach-1998-38] Kurtenbach, Elaine (February 11, 1998). "1962 report by Tibetan leader tells of mass beatings, starvation". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2001-07-21. Retrieved 2016-04-18.

[Panchen-39] "Secret Report by the Panchen Lama Criticises China"

[subliminal.org-40] "Samsara: 1962 Panchen Lama Report". subliminal.org. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

[Craig_1992,_p._125-41] Craig (1992), p. 125.

[42] Jamyang, Norbu. "Running-dog Propagandists". Phayul. Retrieved 10 May 2016.

[43] Barry Sautman, "Demographic Annihilation" and Tibet, pp. 230–257, in Barry Sautman, June Teufel Dreyer (eds), Contemporary Tibet: politics, development, and society in a disputed region, M. E. Sharpe, 2006, 360 p.

[44] Kuzmin, S.L. Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation. Dharamsala, LTWA, 2011, pp. 340–341

[tibetjustice.org-45] "Tibet Justice Center - Legal Materials on Tibet - Governmental and NGOs - ICJ Report on Tibet and China (excerpt) (1960) [p.346]". tibetjustice.org. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

[46] Kuzmin, S.L. Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation. Dharamsala, LTWA, 2011

[47] Shakya (1999), p. 320.

[48] Shakya (1999), pp. 314–347.

[49] Wang 2001, pp. 212–214

[50] A. Tom Grunfeld, Tibet and the United States, in Barry Sautman and June Teufel Dreyer (eds), Contemporary Tibet: politics, development, and society in a disputed region, M. E. Sharpe, 2006, 360 p., pp. 319–349, p. 329:
The United States also took advantage of the Dalai Lama's having left Tibet by having the CIA revive its Cold War propaganda machine, creating supposedly popular organizations such as the American Emergency Committee for Tibetan Refugees, prodding its clandestinely funded Cold War human rights organizations such as the International Commission of Jurists to prepare propagandistic reports attacking China
.

[51] Howard B. Tolley Jr., The International Commission of Jurists, Global Advocates for Human Rights, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1944, XVII p. + 344 p.

[52] Richard Pierre Claude, review of Howard B. Tolley Jr., The International Commission of Jurists: Global Advocates for Humam Rights, in Human Rights Quarterly, August 1994:
Based on the documentation and named respondents, the authors present the tale of the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in secretly bankrolling the formation of the ICJ as an instrument of the cold war. (...) Tolley shows that the tainted source of funding was unknown to most ICJ officers and members
.

[53] Dorothy Stein, People Who Count. Population and Politics, Women and Children, Earthscan Publications, London, 1995, XI + 239 p., pp. 193–104, note 27:
The ICJ itself grew out of a group created by American intelligence agents whose purpose was disseminating anti-communist propaganda. It too has received funds from the CIA, which is not a notable rights organization, nor, which is more to the point, particularly noted for its interest in truth. The 1960 LIC report, Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic (ICJ, Geneva: 1990), shows strong signs of bias in accepting or rejecting the testimonies cited
.

[54] ttp://www.icj.org/default.asp?nodeID=441&langage=1&myPage=Overview

[55] Dodin (2008), pp. 205.

[56] Dodin (2008), pp. 195–196.

[Powers141_2-57] Powers 2004, pp. 141–2

[Powers185-58] Powers 2004, pg. 185

[shakyawang-59] "Blood in the Snows(Reply to Wang Lixiong)". Retrieved 2009-03-02.

[60] ISBN 1-4000-4100-7
, pp. 278–82

[61] Smith 1997, p. 600

[Tibet:_Proving_Truth_from_Facts-62] 'Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts' Archived 2007-06-15 at the Wayback Machine, The Department of Information and International Relations: Central Tibetan Administration, 1996. p. 53

[barry-63] Barry Sautman, June Teufel Dreyer, Contemporary Tibet: Politics, Development, And Society In A Disputed Region pp. 239

[64] Grunfeld 1996, p. 247.

[65] French 2003, pp. 278–82

[66] Smith 1997, p. 600–1 n. 8

[Kewly,_p._255-67] Courtois 1997, p. 545–6, (cites Kewly, Tibet p. 255)

[68] Yan Hao, 'Tibetan Population in China: Myths and Facts Re-examined', Asian Ethnicity, Volume 1, No. 1, March 2000, p.24

[69] Peng Xizhe (彭希哲), "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces," Population and Development Review 13, no. 4 (1987), 639–70.
For a summary of other estimates, please refer to this link

[70] People's Daily, Beijing, 10 November 1959, in Population transfer and control

[71] 1954 Chinese Census Report Archived 2009-08-05 at the Wayback Machine Template:Link language

[72] Template:Zh icon Qinghai Population [2]

[73] Kuzmin, S.L. Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation. Dharamsala, LTWA, 2011, pp. 334–340

[74] "Tibet Justice Center - Legal Materials on Tibet - Governmental and NGOs - ICJ Report on the Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law (excerpt) (1959) [p.342]". tibetjustice.org. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

[Goldstein613-75] Goldstein 1997, pp. 61–3

[Goldstein636-76] Goldstein 1997, pp. 63–66

[77] "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2006-11-06. Retrieved 2006-10-21. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Tibet, China and the United States: Reflections on the Tibet Question,by Melvyn C. Goldstein

[Goldstein674-78] Goldstein 1997, pp. 67–74

[Goldstein758-79] Goldstein 1997, pp. 75–78

[Goldstein7983-80] Goldstein 1997, pp. 79–83

[Goldstein837-81] Goldstein 1997, pp. 83–87

[82] ISBN 978-0-520-24928-8
(pbk).

[Goldstein8799-83] Goldstein 1997, pp. 87–99

[acme-84] "Acme of Obscenity". Archived from the original on 2010-07-04. Retrieved 2010-03-28. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[85] "BBC NEWS - Asia-Pacific - Profile: Hu Jintao". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

[86] Chinese Said to Kill 450 Tibetans in 1989

[web.amnesty.org-87] ttp://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA170071996 'Tibet: 6-year old boy missing and over 50 detained in Panchen Lama dispute', Amnesty International, 18 January 1996

[sfgate.com-88] "Train heads for Tibet, carrying fears of change / Migration, tourism likely to increase". SFGate. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

[leh-89] Robert Barnett's passages extracted from Steve Lehman, The Tibetans: Struggle to Survive, Umbrage Editions, New York, 1998., [3]

[savetibet.org-90] Personnel Changes in Lhasa Reveal Preference for Chinese Over Tibetans, Says TIN Report

[Wang_194-7-91] Jiawei, Wang, "The Historical Status of China's Tibet", 2000, pp 194–7

[Hilton19x-92] Hilton 2000, pp. 192–194

[93] Peter Hessler, 'Tibet Through Chinese Eyes', The Atlantic Monthly, Feb. 1999

[Powers143-94] Powers 2004, pg. 143

[95] "Statement to the Human Rights Council on Tibet". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

[96] "Beijing's Broken Promises on Human Rights". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

[97] 'High wages in Tibet benefit the privileged', Asian Labour News, 21 February 2005,

[autogenerated8-98] 'Tibet's March Toward Modernization, section II The Rapid Social Development in Tibet', Information Office of the State Council of the PRC, November 2001

[99] "Tibet: Basic Data". United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Archived from the original on 2004-02-20. Retrieved 2008-04-22. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[100] Xinhua
on-line news on Tibet

[101] Elliot Sperling, Exile and Dissent: The Historical and Cultural Context, in TIBET SINCE 1950: SILENCE, PRISON, OR EXILE 31-36 (Melissa Harris & Sydney Jones eds., 2000), see The Historical and Cultural Context by Elliot Sperling

[102] China launches Tibetan channel for India, Nepal, PTI, rediff NEWS, October 1, 2007: "China launched the first-ever 24-hour Tibetan language television channel on Monday to mark its 58th National Day (...). The channel only broadcast 11 hours a day when it was opened in 1999."

[103] The wishes of a Tibetan, China Digital Times, March 27, 2009: "At present, the two most popular television channels in the Tibetan areas are the Qinghai Tibetan language channel and the Tibet Tibetan language channel"

[104] Zhang Mingyu, Cheer up for opening khampa Tibetan TV Channel, tibet.new.cn, January 17, 2010.

[105] Tibetan student protests spread to Beijing, The Guardian, 22 October 2010

[amnesty09-106] Amnesty International, State of the World's Human Rights: China, 2009, accessed 16 March 2010

[107] "Tibet is virtually a big prison: Former political prisoners". thetibetpost.com. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

[HRW323-108] "China's Forbidden Zones". pp. 32–33. Retrieved 2010-03-11.

[tibet.com-109] "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-07-12. Retrieved 2009-07-12. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

[stats.gov.cn-110] National Bureau of Statistics of China Template:Link language

[111] ttps://books.google.com/books?id=uod9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=%22become+tibetan%22&source=bl&ots=aIOjidSi1X&sig=rYBHaADmJxCDE3qmpOmb2EA2WkI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiR19fr3vDWAhXDRiYKHUJ0CPsQ6AEIQjAI#v=onepage&q&f=false

[112] ttps://www.betterplace.org/en/projects/44869-help-for-the-tibetan-village-briddhim-in-northern-nepal

[113] ttp://tibetdata.org/projects/population/

[114] "Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)". Census Commission of India. Archived from the original on 2004-06-16. Retrieved 2008-11-01.

[115] Dalai Lama accuses China of 'demographic aggression'

[116] "Hu opens world's highest railway". BBC News. 2006-07-01. Retrieved 2010-05-25.

[117] In aninterview May 31, 2008, the Dalai Lama declared: « "Greater Tibet", now, this very word comes from the Chinese government side. We never state the greater Tibet » His Holiness the Dalai Lama discusses the recent unrest inside Tibet with the editors of the Financial Times (FT) Archived 2009-10-14 at the Wayback Machine.

[118] Xinhua News report Template:Link language

[119] SINA News report Template:Link language

[120] "中华人民共和国人口与计划生育法". www.gov.cn. Retrieved 26 September 2015.

[121] Kuzmin, S.L. Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation. Dharamsala, LTWA, 2011.

[122] Protests in Tibet and Separatism: the Olympics and Beyond

[123] People’s Republic of China: Background paper on the situation of the Tibetan population, A Writenet Report by Professor Colin P. Mackerras, p. 19–20.

[ZH-124] ISBN 7-105-05425-5
).

[1]

[3]

[4]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[44]

[45]

[24]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[16]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[92]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[98]

[104]

[106]

[107]

[108]

[109]

[110]

[111]

[112]

[113]

[114]

[117]

[118]

[119]

[120]

[121]

[122]

[123]

@@ Line 8: / Line 8: @@
 In 1949, seeing that the Communists were gaining control of China, the [[Kashag]] expelled all Chinese connected with the Chinese government, over the protests of both the Kuomintang and the Communists.<ref name="shakya7-8">Shakya 1999, pp. 7–8</ref> Both the [[Republic of China]] (ROC) and the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) have maintained [[China]]'s claim to sovereignty over Tibet. Many people felt that Tibet should not be part of China because they were constantly under attack in different ways rather often. Tibet had been its own country before 1951.<ref name="Hessler">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/02/tibet-through-chinese-eyes/306395/|title=Tibet Through Chinese Eyes|last=Hessler|first=Peter|work=The Atlantic|access-date=2017-04-26|language=en-US}}</ref> In many eyes China seems to be trying to dismiss Tibet's culture, and has also been trying to do so worldwide.<ref name="Hessler"/> Because of the powerful Communist PRC government, Tibet has had to deal with political changes and various forms of oppression.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.savetibet.org/issue-56-tibet-under-the-rule-of-the-chinese-communist-party/|title=Issue #56: Tibet under the Rule of the Chinese Communist Party {{!}} International Campaign for Tibet|website=www.savetibet.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-26}}</ref>
-The [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communist]] government led by [[Mao Zedong]], which came to power in October, lost little time in asserting a new PRC presence in Tibet. The PRC has carried out different projects in Tibet but the people of Tibet seem to feel ignored politically and economically in the “[[Tibet Autonomous Region]]” and in the Tibetan portions of land in Qinghai, Sichuan, and Yunnan. <ref name="ReferenceA"/> In June 1950, the [[UK]] Government in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] stated that His Majesty's Government "have always been prepared to recognize Chinese suzerainty over Tibet, but only on the understanding that Tibet is regarded as autonomous."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1950/jun/21/tibet-autonomy#S5CV0476P0_19500621_HOC_70|title=TIBET (AUTONOMY)|work=millbanksystems.com|accessdate=26 September 2015}}</ref> On 7 October 1950,<ref name="Laird301">Laird 2006, p. 301</ref> The [[People's Liberation Army]] [[Invasion of Tibet (1950–1951)|invaded]] the Tibetan area of [[Chamdo]]. The large number of units of the PLA quickly surrounded the outnumbered largely pacific Tibetan forces. By October 19, 1950, 5,000 Tibetan troops had surrendered under PRC Oppression.<ref name="Laird301" /> In 1951, representatives of Tibetan authority, with the Dalai Lama's authorization,<ref>Goldstein 2007, p96</ref> participated in negotiations with the PRC government in Beijing. This resulted in a ''[[Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet|Seventeen Point Agreement]]'' which established PRC's sovereignty over Tibet, and it thereby gave the PRC power to rule.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cfr.org/tibet/seventeen-point-plan-peaceful-liberation-tibet/p16006|title=Seventeen-Point Plan for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet|work=Council on Foreign Relations|access-date=2017-04-26|language=en}}</ref> The agreement was ratified in Lhasa a few months later.<ref>Goldstein 1989, pp. 812–813</ref> According to the [[Central Tibetan Administration|Tibetan government-in-exile]], some members of the Tibetan Cabinet (Kashag), for example, Tibetan Prime Minister [[Lukhangwa]], never accepted the agreement.<ref>In 1952 Lukhangwa told PRC Representative Zhang Jingwu "It was absurd to refer to the terms of the Seventeen-Point Agreement. Our people did not accept the agreement and the Chinese themselves had repeatedly broken the terms of it. Their army was still in occupation of eastern Tibet; the area had not been returned to the government of Tibet, as it should have been." ''My Land and My People'', Dalai Lama, New York, 1992, p.95</ref> But the National Assembly of Tibet, "while recognizing the extenuating circumstances under which the delegates had to sign the 'agreement', asked the government to accept the 'agreement'...the Kashag told Zhang Jingwu that it would radio its acceptance of the 'agreement'."<ref name="tibet.net">{{cite web|url=http://www.tibet.net/en/index.php?id=183&rmenuid=11|title=Encouraged By Rising Support From Intellectuals in China: His Holiness the Dalai Lama|work=tibet.net|accessdate=26 September 2015}}</ref>
+The [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communist]] government led by [[Mao Zedong]], which came to power in October, lost little time in asserting a new PRC presence in Tibet. The PRC has carried out different projects in Tibet but the people of Tibet seem to feel ignored politically and economically in the “[[Tibet Autonomous Region]]” and in the Tibetan portions of land in Qinghai, Sichuan, and Yunnan. <ref name="ReferenceA"/> In June 1950, the [[UK]] Government in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] stated that His Majesty's Government "have always been prepared to recognize Chinese suzerainty over Tibet, but only on the understanding that Tibet is regarded as autonomous."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1950/jun/21/tibet-autonomy#S5CV0476P0_19500621_HOC_70|title=TIBET (AUTONOMY)|work=millbanksystems.com|accessdate=26 September 2015}}</ref> On 7 October 1950,<ref name="Laird301">Laird 2006, p. 301</ref> The [[People's Liberation Army]] [[Invasion of Tibet (1950–1951)|invaded]] the Tibetan area of [[Chamdo]]. The large number of units of the PLA quickly surrounded the outnumbered largely pacific Tibetan forces. By October 19, 1950, 5,000 Tibetan troops had surrendered under PRC Oppression.<ref name="Laird301" /> In 1951, representatives of Tibetan authority, with the Dalai Lama's authorization,<ref>Goldstein 2007, p96</ref> participated in negotiations with the PRC government in Beijing. This resulted in a ''[[Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet|Seventeen Point Agreement]]'' which established PRC's sovereignty over Tibet, and it thereby gave the PRC power to rule.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cfr.org/tibet/seventeen-point-plan-peaceful-liberation-tibet/p16006|title=Seventeen-Point Plan for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet|work=Council on Foreign Relations|access-date=2017-04-26|language=en}}</ref> The agreement was ratified in Lhasa a few months later.<ref>Goldstein 1989, pp. 812–813</ref> According to the [[Central Tibetan Administration|Tibetan government-in-exile]], some members of the Tibetan Cabinet (Kashag), for example, Tibetan Prime Minister [[Lukhangwa]], never accepted the agreement.<ref>In 1952 Lukhangwa told PRC Representative Zhang Jingwu "It was absurd to refer to the terms of the Seventeen-Point Agreement. Our people did not accept the agreement and the Chinese themselves had repeatedly broken the terms of it. Their army was still in occupation of eastern Tibet; the area had not been returned to the government of Tibet, as it should have been." ''My Land and My People'', Dalai Lama, New York, 1992, p.95</ref> But the National Assembly of Tibet, "while recognizing the extenuating circumstances under which the delegates had to sign the 'agreement', asked the government to accept the 'agreement'...the Kashag told Zhang Jingwu that it would radio its acceptance of the 'agreement'."<ref name="tibet.net">{{cite web|url=http://www.tibet.net/en/index.php?id=183&rmenuid=11|title=Encouraged By Rising Support From Intellectuals in China: His Holiness the Dalai Lama|work=tibet.net|accessdate=26 September 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928101214/http://www.tibet.net/en/index.php?id=183&rmenuid=11|archivedate=28 September 2011|df=}}</ref>
-Tibetan exile sources generally consider it invalid, as having been reluctantly or unwillingly signed under duress.<ref name="Powers116 7">Powers 2004, pp. 116&ndash;7</ref> On the path that was leading him into exile in India, the [[14th Dalai Lama]] arrived March 26, 1959 at Lhuntse Dzong where he repudiated the "17-point Agreement" as having been "thrust upon Tibetan Government and people by the threat of arms"<ref name="tibet.net" /> and reaffirmed his government as the only legitimate representative of Tibet.<ref name="Michel Peissel">[[Michel Peissel]], "The Cavaliers of Kham, the secret war in Tibet" London: Heinemann 1972, and Boston: Little, Brown & Co. 1973</ref><ref name="Tenzin Gyatso">[[Tenzin Gyatso|Dalai Lama]], ''[[Freedom in Exile]]'' Harper San Francisco, 1991</ref> According to the Seventeen Point Agreement, the Dalai Lama-ruled Tibetan area was supposed to be a highly autonomous area of China. From the beginning, it was obvious that incorporating Tibet into Communist PRC would bring two opposite social systems face-to-face.<ref name="goldstein2007-541">Goldstein 2007, p541</ref> In western Tibet, however, the Chinese Communists opted not to make social reform an immediate priority. On the contrary, from 1951 to 1959, traditional Tibetan society with its lords and manorial estates continued to function unchanged and were subsidized by the central government.<ref name="goldstein2007-541" /> Despite the presence of twenty thousand PLA troops in Central Tibet, the Dalai Lama's government was permitted to maintain important symbols from its ''de facto'' independence period.<ref name="goldstein2007-541" /> The first national census in all of the [[People's Republic of China]] was held in 1954, counting 2,770,000 ethnic Tibetans in China, including 1,270,000 in the Tibet Autonomous Region.<ref name="pop">[http://www.tibetology.ac.cn/article2/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=2764 Population of Tibet 1950–1990] {{Link language|zh}}<!--Chinese--></ref> The Chinese built [[highways]] that reached Lhasa, and then extended them to the [[India]]n, [[Nepal]]ese and [[Pakistan]]i borders.
+Tibetan exile sources generally consider it invalid, as having been reluctantly or unwillingly signed under duress.<ref name="Powers116 7">Powers 2004, pp. 116&ndash;7</ref> On the path that was leading him into exile in India, the [[14th Dalai Lama]] arrived March 26, 1959 at Lhuntse Dzong where he repudiated the "17-point Agreement" as having been "thrust upon Tibetan Government and people by the threat of arms"<ref name="tibet.net" /> and reaffirmed his government as the only legitimate representative of Tibet.<ref name="Michel Peissel">[[Michel Peissel]], "The Cavaliers of Kham, the secret war in Tibet" London: Heinemann 1972, and Boston: Little, Brown & Co. 1973</ref><ref name="Tenzin Gyatso">[[Tenzin Gyatso|Dalai Lama]], ''[[Freedom in Exile]]'' Harper San Francisco, 1991</ref> According to the Seventeen Point Agreement, the Dalai Lama-ruled Tibetan area was supposed to be a highly autonomous area of China. From the beginning, it was obvious that incorporating Tibet into Communist PRC would bring two opposite social systems face-to-face.<ref name="goldstein2007-541">Goldstein 2007, p541</ref> In western Tibet, however, the Chinese Communists opted not to make social reform an immediate priority. On the contrary, from 1951 to 1959, traditional Tibetan society with its lords and manorial estates continued to function unchanged and were subsidized by the central government.<ref name="goldstein2007-541" /> Despite the presence of twenty thousand PLA troops in Central Tibet, the Dalai Lama's government was permitted to maintain important symbols from its ''de facto'' independence period.<ref name="goldstein2007-541" /> The first national census in all of the [[People's Republic of China]] was held in 1954, counting 2,770,000 ethnic Tibetans in China, including 1,270,000 in the Tibet Autonomous Region.<ref name="pop">[http://www.tibetology.ac.cn/article2/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=2764 Population of Tibet 1950–1990] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124053818/http://www.tibetology.ac.cn/article2/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=2764 |date=2007-11-24 }} {{Link language|zh}}<!--Chinese--></ref> The Chinese built [[highways]] that reached Lhasa, and then extended them to the [[India]]n, [[Nepal]]ese and [[Pakistan]]i borders.
 Tibetan areas in [[Qinghai]], which were outside the authority of the Dalai Lama's government, did not enjoy this same autonomy and had land redistribution implemented in full. Most lands were taken away from noblemen and monasteries and re-distributed to serfs. The Tibetan region of Eastern Kham, previously [[Xikang]] province, was incorporated into the province of Sichuan. Western Kham was put under the Chamdo Military Committee. In these areas, [[land reform]] was implemented. This involved communist agitators designating "landlords"&mdash;sometimes arbitrarily chosen&mdash;for public humiliation in so-called "[[Struggle Session|struggle sessions]]",<ref>''thamzing'', {{Bo|w=‘thab-‘dzing|l={{IPA-bo|tʰʌ́msiŋ|}}}}</ref> torture, maiming, and even death.<ref>Craig (1992), pp. 76–78, 120–123.</ref><ref>Shakya (1999), pp. 245–249, 296, 322–323.</ref> It was only after 1959 that China brought the same practices to Central Tibet.<ref>Laird 2006, p. 318</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2008-04/17/content_7994146.htm |title=Unforgettable History—Old Tibet Serfdom System |accessdate=2008-04-29 |author=Guangming Daily |language=zh }}</ref>
@@ Line 36: / Line 36: @@
 Armed conflict between [[Chushi Gangdruk|Tibetan rebels]] and the [[People's Liberation Army|Chinese army]] (PLA) broke out in 1956 in the [[Kham]] and [[Amdo]] regions, which had been subjected to [[socialist]] reform. The [[guerrilla warfare]] later spread to other areas of Tibet.
-In March 1959 a revolt erupted in [[Lhasa]], which had been under the effective control of the [[Communist Party of China]] since the [[Seventeen Point Agreement]] in 1951.<ref>[[Chen Jian (academic)|Chen Jian]], [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/jcws.2006.8.3.pdf The Tibetan Rebellion of 1959 and China’s Changing Relations with India and the Soviet Union], Journal of Cold War Studies, [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/abstracts.htm Volume 8 Issue 3 Summer 2006], Cold War Studies at Harvard University.</ref> On 12 March, protesters appeared in the streets of Lhasa declaring Tibet's independence. Within days, Tibetan troops prepared to secure an evacuation route for the [[Dalai Lama]], who [[14th Dalai Lama#Exile to India|fled into exile]] during the uprising. Artillery shells landed near the Dalai Lama's [[Potala Palace|Palace]],<ref name="shakya-1999">Shakya, Tsering. ''The Dragon In The Land Of Snows'' (1999) Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-231-11814-9}} pp. 186-191</ref> prompting the full force of the Uprising. Combat lasted only about two days, with Tibetan rebel forces being badly outnumbered and poorly armed.<ref name="chushigangdruk.org">[http://www.chushigangdruk.org/history/history07.html Chushi Gangdruk]</ref>
+In March 1959 a revolt erupted in [[Lhasa]], which had been under the effective control of the [[Communist Party of China]] since the [[Seventeen Point Agreement]] in 1951.<ref>[[Chen Jian (academic)|Chen Jian]], [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/jcws.2006.8.3.pdf The Tibetan Rebellion of 1959 and China’s Changing Relations with India and the Soviet Union], Journal of Cold War Studies, [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/abstracts.htm Volume 8 Issue 3 Summer 2006], Cold War Studies at Harvard University.</ref> On 12 March, protesters appeared in the streets of Lhasa declaring Tibet's independence. Within days, Tibetan troops prepared to secure an evacuation route for the [[Dalai Lama]], who [[14th Dalai Lama#Exile to India|fled into exile]] during the uprising. Artillery shells landed near the Dalai Lama's [[Potala Palace|Palace]],<ref name="shakya-1999">Shakya, Tsering. ''The Dragon In The Land Of Snows'' (1999) Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-231-11814-9}} pp. 186-191</ref> prompting the full force of the Uprising. Combat lasted only about two days, with Tibetan rebel forces being badly outnumbered and poorly armed.<ref name="chushigangdruk.org">[http://www.chushigangdruk.org/history/history07.html Chushi Gangdruk] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325152030/http://www.chushigangdruk.org/history/history07.html |date=2008-03-25 }}</ref>
 Reprisals for the [[1959 Tibetan uprising]] involved the killing of 87,000 Tibetans by the Chinese count, according to a Radio Lhasa broadcast of 1 October 1960, although Tibetan exiles claim that 430,000 died during the Uprising and the subsequent 15 years of [[guerrilla warfare]], which continued until the US withdrew support.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tibet.org/Why/occupation.html|title=Tibet Online - Why Tibet? - Major Allegations on the Chinese Occupation|work=tibet.org|accessdate=26 September 2015}}</ref>
@@ Line 86: / Line 86: @@
 === Demographic repercusssions ===
-Warren W. Smith, a broadcaster of [[Radio Free Asia]] (which was established by the US government), extrapolated a death figure of 400,000 from his calculation of census reports of Tibet which show 200,000 "missing" people.<ref>''Tibet, Tibet'' {{ISBN|1-4000-4100-7}}, pp. 278–82</ref><ref>Smith 1997, p. 600</ref> The [[Central Tibetan Administration]] claimed that the number that have died of starvation, violence, or other indirect causes since 1950 is approximately 1.2 million.<ref name="Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts">[http://www.tibet.net/en/diir/pubs/wp/tb96/Tibet%20Proving%20Truth.pdf 'Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts'], ''The Department of Information and International Relations: Central Tibetan Administration'', 1996. p. 53</ref> According to [[Patrick French]], the former director of the London-based [[Free Tibet Campaign]] and a supporter of the Tibetan cause who was able to view the data and calculations, the estimate is not reliable because the Tibetans were not able to process the data well enough to produce a credible total. French says this total was based on refugee interviews, but prevented outsider access to the data. French, who did gain access, found no names, but "the insertion of seemingly random figures into each section, and constant, unchecked duplication."<ref name="barry">Barry Sautman, June Teufel Dreyer, ''Contemporary Tibet: Politics, Development, And Society In A Disputed Region'' pp. 239</ref> Furthermore, he found that of the 1.1 million dead listed, only 23,364 were female (implying that 1.07 million of the total Tibetan male population of 1.25 million had died).<ref name="barry"/> [[Tibetologist]] [[Tom Grunfeld]] also finds that the figure is "without documentary evidence."<ref>Grunfeld 1996, p. 247.</ref> There were, however, many casualties, perhaps as many as 400,000.<ref>French 2003, pp. 278–82</ref> Smith, calculating from census reports of Tibet, shows 144,000 to 160,000 "missing" from Tibet".<ref>Smith 1997, p. 600–1 n. 8</ref> Courtois ''et al.'' forward a figure of 800,000 deaths and allege that as many as 10% of the Tibetan populace were interned, with few survivors.<ref name="Kewly, p. 255">Courtois 1997, p. 545–6, (cites Kewly, ''Tibet'' p. 255)</ref> Chinese demographers have estimated that 90,000 of the 300,000 "missing" Tibetans fled the region.<ref>Yan Hao, [http://www.case.edu/affil/tibet/booksAndPapers/tibetan.population.in.china.pdf 'Tibetan Population in China: Myths and Facts Re-examined'], ''Asian Ethnicity'', Volume 1, No. 1, March 2000, p.24</ref> The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) denies this. Its official toll of deaths recorded for the whole of China for the years of the Great Leap Forward is 14 million, but scholars have estimated the number of the famine victims to be between 20 and 43 million.<ref>Peng Xizhe (彭希哲), "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces," ''Population and Development Review'' 13, no. 4 (1987), 639–70.<br>For a summary of other estimates, please refer to this [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm#Mao link]</ref>
+Warren W. Smith, a broadcaster of [[Radio Free Asia]] (which was established by the US government), extrapolated a death figure of 400,000 from his calculation of census reports of Tibet which show 200,000 "missing" people.<ref>''Tibet, Tibet'' {{ISBN|1-4000-4100-7}}, pp. 278–82</ref><ref>Smith 1997, p. 600</ref> The [[Central Tibetan Administration]] claimed that the number that have died of starvation, violence, or other indirect causes since 1950 is approximately 1.2 million.<ref name="Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts">[http://www.tibet.net/en/diir/pubs/wp/tb96/Tibet%20Proving%20Truth.pdf 'Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts'] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615161100/http://www.tibet.net/en/diir/pubs/wp/tb96/Tibet%20Proving%20Truth.pdf |date=2007-06-15 }}, ''The Department of Information and International Relations: Central Tibetan Administration'', 1996. p. 53</ref> According to [[Patrick French]], the former director of the London-based [[Free Tibet Campaign]] and a supporter of the Tibetan cause who was able to view the data and calculations, the estimate is not reliable because the Tibetans were not able to process the data well enough to produce a credible total. French says this total was based on refugee interviews, but prevented outsider access to the data. French, who did gain access, found no names, but "the insertion of seemingly random figures into each section, and constant, unchecked duplication."<ref name="barry">Barry Sautman, June Teufel Dreyer, ''Contemporary Tibet: Politics, Development, And Society In A Disputed Region'' pp. 239</ref> Furthermore, he found that of the 1.1 million dead listed, only 23,364 were female (implying that 1.07 million of the total Tibetan male population of 1.25 million had died).<ref name="barry"/> [[Tibetologist]] [[Tom Grunfeld]] also finds that the figure is "without documentary evidence."<ref>Grunfeld 1996, p. 247.</ref> There were, however, many casualties, perhaps as many as 400,000.<ref>French 2003, pp. 278–82</ref> Smith, calculating from census reports of Tibet, shows 144,000 to 160,000 "missing" from Tibet".<ref>Smith 1997, p. 600–1 n. 8</ref> Courtois ''et al.'' forward a figure of 800,000 deaths and allege that as many as 10% of the Tibetan populace were interned, with few survivors.<ref name="Kewly, p. 255">Courtois 1997, p. 545–6, (cites Kewly, ''Tibet'' p. 255)</ref> Chinese demographers have estimated that 90,000 of the 300,000 "missing" Tibetans fled the region.<ref>Yan Hao, [http://www.case.edu/affil/tibet/booksAndPapers/tibetan.population.in.china.pdf 'Tibetan Population in China: Myths and Facts Re-examined'], ''Asian Ethnicity'', Volume 1, No. 1, March 2000, p.24</ref> The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) denies this. Its official toll of deaths recorded for the whole of China for the years of the Great Leap Forward is 14 million, but scholars have estimated the number of the famine victims to be between 20 and 43 million.<ref>Peng Xizhe (彭希哲), "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces," ''Population and Development Review'' 13, no. 4 (1987), 639–70.<br>For a summary of other estimates, please refer to this [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm#Mao link]</ref>
 The Government of Tibet in Exile quotes an issue of ''[[People's Daily]]'' published in 1959 to claim that the Tibetan population has dropped significantly since 1959, counting the population of the Tibet Autonomous region but Qinghai, Gansu, and other regions inhabited by Tibetans, as the "Tibetan population". Compared as a whole to the 2000 numbers, the population in these regions has decreased, it says.<ref>People's Daily, Beijing, 10 November 1959, in [http://www.tibet.com/WhitePaper/white8.html Population transfer and control]</ref> These findings are in conflict with a 1954 Chinese census report that counted ethnic Tibetans.<ref>[http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16767.htm 1954 Chinese Census Report] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805174810/http://www.stats.gov.cn/TJGB/RKPCGB/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16767.htm |date=2009-08-05 }} {{Link language|zh}}<!--Chinese--></ref> This is because in all of these provinces, Tibetans were not the only traditional ethnic group. This is held to be so especially in Qinghai, which has a historical mixture of different groups of ethnics. In 1949, Han Chinese made up 48.3% of the population, the rest of the ethnic groups make up 51.7% of the 1.5 million total population.<ref>{{zh icon}} Qinghai Population [http://www.57qh.com/qinghai/Html/2006624155714-1.html]</ref> As of today, Han Chinese account for 54% of the total population of Qinghai, which is slightly higher than in 1949. Tibetans make up around 20% of the population of Qinghai.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} Detailed analysis of statistical data from Chinese and Tibetan emigrant sources revealed errors in estimates of Tibetan population by regions. Although it may contain errors, data from the Government of Tibet in Exile was found to be in better correspondence with the known facts than any other existing estimates. With respect to total population of the whole Tibet in 1953 and 1959, the Tibetan side appears to provide numbers that are too high, while the Chinese side provides numbers that are too low.<ref>[http://savetibet.ru/img/2010/tibet-book-eng.pdf Kuzmin, S.L. ''Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation''. Dharamsala, LTWA, 2011, pp. 334–340]</ref>
@@ Line 97: / Line 97: @@
 Following Mao's death in 1976, [[Deng Xiaoping]] launched initiatives of rapprochement with the exiled Tibetan leaders, hoping to persuade them to come to live in China. [[Ren Rong]], who was Communist Party Secretary in Tibet, thought that Tibetans in Tibet were happy under Chinese Communist rule and that they shared the Chinese Communist views of the pre-Communist Tibetan rulers as oppressive despots. So, when delegations from the Tibetan government in exile visited Tibet in 1979-80, Chinese officials expected to impress the Tibetan exiles with the progress that had occurred since 1950 and with the contentment of the Tibetan populace. Ren even organized meetings in Lhasa to urge Tibetans to restrain their animosity towards the coming representatives of an old, oppressive regime. The Chinese, then, were astonished and embarrassed at the massive, tearful expressions of devotion which Tibetans made to the visiting Tibetan exiles. Thousands of Tibetans cried, prostrated, offered scarves to the visitors, and strove for a chance to touch the Dalai Lama's brother.<ref name="Goldstein613">Goldstein 1997, pp. 61–3</ref>
-These events also prompted Party Secretary [[Hu Yaobang]] and Vice Premier [[Wan Li]] to visit Tibet, where they were dismayed by the conditions they found. Hu announced a reform program intended to improve economic standards for Tibetans and to foster some freedom for Tibetans to practice ethnic and cultural traditions. In some ways, this was a return from the hard line authoritarianism and assimilation policies of the 1960s to Mao's more ethnically accommodating policies of the 1950s, with the major difference that there would be no separate Tibetan government as there had been in the 1950s.<ref name="Goldstein636">Goldstein 1997, pp. 63–66</ref> Hu ordered a change in policy, calling for the revitalization of Tibetan culture, religion, and language, the building of more [[List of universities and colleges in Tibet|universities and colleges in Tibet]], and an increase in the number of ethnic Tibetans in the local government.<ref>http://cc.purdue.edu/~wtv/tibet/article/art4.html ''Tibet, China and the United States: Reflections on the Tibet Question,''by Melvyn C. Goldstein</ref> Concurrent liberalizations in [[Chinese economic reform|economics]] and [[Hukou system|internal migration]] have also resulted in Tibet seeing more [[Han Chinese]] [[migrant workers]], though the actual number of this [[floating population]] remains disputed.
+These events also prompted Party Secretary [[Hu Yaobang]] and Vice Premier [[Wan Li]] to visit Tibet, where they were dismayed by the conditions they found. Hu announced a reform program intended to improve economic standards for Tibetans and to foster some freedom for Tibetans to practice ethnic and cultural traditions. In some ways, this was a return from the hard line authoritarianism and assimilation policies of the 1960s to Mao's more ethnically accommodating policies of the 1950s, with the major difference that there would be no separate Tibetan government as there had been in the 1950s.<ref name="Goldstein636">Goldstein 1997, pp. 63–66</ref> Hu ordered a change in policy, calling for the revitalization of Tibetan culture, religion, and language, the building of more [[List of universities and colleges in Tibet|universities and colleges in Tibet]], and an increase in the number of ethnic Tibetans in the local government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cc.purdue.edu/~wtv/tibet/article/art4.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2006-10-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061106021854/http://cc.purdue.edu/~wtv/tibet/article/art4.html |archivedate=2006-11-06 |df= }} ''Tibet, China and the United States: Reflections on the Tibet Question,''by Melvyn C. Goldstein</ref> Concurrent liberalizations in [[Chinese economic reform|economics]] and [[Hukou system|internal migration]] have also resulted in Tibet seeing more [[Han Chinese]] [[migrant workers]], though the actual number of this [[floating population]] remains disputed.
 New meetings between Chinese officials and exiled leaders took place in 1981–1984, but no agreements could be reached.<ref name="Goldstein674">Goldstein 1997, pp. 67–74</ref>
@@ Line 119: / Line 119: @@
 The government, in turn, rejects claims that the lives of Tibetans have deteriorated, and states that the lives of Tibetans have been improved immensely compared to self-rule before 1950.<ref>Peter Hessler, [http://www.csd99.k12.il.us/khector/tibet_analysis.htm 'Tibet Through Chinese Eyes'], ''The Atlantic Monthly'', Feb. 1999</ref> Despite China's claims that the lives of Tibetans have improved immensely, a 2004 book claimed some 3,000 Tibetans brave hardship and danger to flee into exile every year.<ref name="Powers143">Powers 2004, pg. 143</ref><!--what about post-2008 strife exile numbers?--> In addition, [[Human Rights Watch]] reports continued widespread abuses committed by Chinese security forces<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/en/news/2010/09/24/statement-tibet-human-rights-council|title=Statement to the Human Rights Council on Tibet|work=Human Rights Watch|accessdate=26 September 2015}}</ref> and torture by Chinese police and security forced.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/en/news/2011/01/10/beijings-broken-promises-human-rights-0|title=Beijing's Broken Promises on Human Rights|work=Human Rights Watch|accessdate=26 September 2015}}</ref><!-- The above paragraph feels off-topic and extremely POV. I suggest its contents be moved into a related human rights article or something of the sort. -->
-The PRC claims that from 1951 to 2007, the Tibetan population in Lhasa-administered Tibet has increased from 1.2 million to almost 3 million. The [[gross domestic product|GDP]] of the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) today is thirty times that of before 1950. Workers in Tibet have the second highest wages in China.<ref>[http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/55/783.html 'High wages in Tibet benefit the privileged'], Asian Labour News, 21 February 2005,</ref> The TAR has {{convert|22500|km}} of highways, as opposed to none in 1950. All secular education in the TAR was created after the revolution. The TAR now has 25 scientific research institutes as opposed to none in 1950. [[Infant mortality]] has dropped from 43% in 1950 to 0.661% in 2000.<ref name=autogenerated8>[http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/20011108/3.htm 'Tibet's March Toward Modernization, section II The Rapid Social Development in Tibet'], Information Office of the State Council of the PRC, November 2001</ref> (The United Nations reports an infant mortality rate of 3.53% in 2000, fallen from 43.0% in 1951.<ref>{{cite web| title = Tibet: Basic Data | url = http://www.unescap.org/esid/psis/population/database/chinadata/tibet.htm | publisher = United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific | accessdate=2008-04-22}}</ref>) [[Life expectancy]] has risen from 35.5 years in 1950 to 67 in 2000. It points to the collection and publishing of the traditional ''[[Epic of King Gesar]]'', which is the longest [[Epic poetry|epic poem]] in the world and had only been handed down orally before. (However, corresponding Tibetan texts exist from the 18th century, and in the late 19th and early 20th centuries a [[woodblock printing|woodblock edition]] of the story was compiled by a scholar-monk from [[Ling-tsang]] (a small kingdom north-east of sDe-dge) with inspiration from the prolific Tibetan philosopher [[Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso]]) It also highlights the allocation of 300 million [[Renminbi]] since the 1980s for the maintenance and protection of Tibetan monasteries.<ref name=autogenerated8 /> The [[Cultural Revolution]] and the cultural damage it wrought upon the entire PRC is generally condemned as a nationwide catastrophe, whose main instigators, in the PRC's view, the [[Gang of Four]], have been brought to justice. The [[China Western Development]] plan is viewed by the PRC as a massive, benevolent, and patriotic undertaking by the wealthier eastern coast to help the western parts of China, including Tibet, catch up in prosperity and living standards.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}
+The PRC claims that from 1951 to 2007, the Tibetan population in Lhasa-administered Tibet has increased from 1.2 million to almost 3 million. The [[gross domestic product|GDP]] of the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) today is thirty times that of before 1950. Workers in Tibet have the second highest wages in China.<ref>[http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/55/783.html 'High wages in Tibet benefit the privileged'], Asian Labour News, 21 February 2005,</ref> The TAR has {{convert|22500|km}} of highways, as opposed to none in 1950. All secular education in the TAR was created after the revolution. The TAR now has 25 scientific research institutes as opposed to none in 1950. [[Infant mortality]] has dropped from 43% in 1950 to 0.661% in 2000.<ref name=autogenerated8>[http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/20011108/3.htm 'Tibet's March Toward Modernization, section II The Rapid Social Development in Tibet'], Information Office of the State Council of the PRC, November 2001</ref> (The United Nations reports an infant mortality rate of 3.53% in 2000, fallen from 43.0% in 1951.<ref>{{cite web | title = Tibet: Basic Data | url = http://www.unescap.org/esid/psis/population/database/chinadata/tibet.htm | publisher = United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific | accessdate = 2008-04-22 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20040220022652/http://www.unescap.org/esid/psis/population/database/chinadata/tibet.htm | archivedate = 2004-02-20 | df = }}</ref>) [[Life expectancy]] has risen from 35.5 years in 1950 to 67 in 2000. It points to the collection and publishing of the traditional ''[[Epic of King Gesar]]'', which is the longest [[Epic poetry|epic poem]] in the world and had only been handed down orally before. (However, corresponding Tibetan texts exist from the 18th century, and in the late 19th and early 20th centuries a [[woodblock printing|woodblock edition]] of the story was compiled by a scholar-monk from [[Ling-tsang]] (a small kingdom north-east of sDe-dge) with inspiration from the prolific Tibetan philosopher [[Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso]]) It also highlights the allocation of 300 million [[Renminbi]] since the 1980s for the maintenance and protection of Tibetan monasteries.<ref name=autogenerated8 /> The [[Cultural Revolution]] and the cultural damage it wrought upon the entire PRC is generally condemned as a nationwide catastrophe, whose main instigators, in the PRC's view, the [[Gang of Four]], have been brought to justice. The [[China Western Development]] plan is viewed by the PRC as a massive, benevolent, and patriotic undertaking by the wealthier eastern coast to help the western parts of China, including Tibet, catch up in prosperity and living standards.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}
 In 2008 the Chinese government "launched a 570-million-yuan (81.43 million U.S. dollars) project to preserve 22 historical and cultural heritage sites in Tibet, including the Zhaxi Lhunbo Lamasery as well as the Jokhang, Ramogia, Sanyai and Samgya-Goutog monasteries."<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-05/13/content_11368148.htm] [[Xinhua]] on-line news on Tibet</ref>
@@ Line 144: / Line 144: @@
 The issue of the proportion of the Han population in Tibet is a politically sensitive one and is disputed, involving the [[Government of Tibet in Exile]], the PRC, and the Tibetan independence movement.
-The Government of Tibet in Exile has said that government policies are [[Sinicization of Tibet|sinicizing Tibet]] by encouraging the migration of non-ethnic Tibetans, especially [[Han Chinese|Han]] and [[Hui people|Hui]], so that they outnumber ethnic Tibetans in the Tibetan region.<ref name="tibet.com">http://www.tibet.com/HumanRights/poptrans.html</ref> Some non-Tibetans migrating to the area may end up assimilating into and adapting to the Tibetan culture of the area to a degree, given its significance in the local culture. But if they adapt a more distinct identity to the Tibetans, Tibetan culture would be more likely to become endangered, particularly if Tibetans are the minority. The PRC gives the number of Tibetans in the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] as 2.4 million, as opposed to 190,000 non-Tibetans, and the number of Tibetans in all Tibetan autonomous entities combined (slightly smaller than the Greater Tibet claimed by exiled Tibetans) as 5.0 million, as opposed to 2.3 million non-Tibetans. In the TAR itself, much of the Han population is to be found in [[Lhasa]].<ref name="stats.gov.cn">[http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2007/html/B0209C.HTM National Bureau of Statistics of China] {{Link language|zh}}<!--Chinese--></ref>
+The Government of Tibet in Exile has said that government policies are [[Sinicization of Tibet|sinicizing Tibet]] by encouraging the migration of non-ethnic Tibetans, especially [[Han Chinese|Han]] and [[Hui people|Hui]], so that they outnumber ethnic Tibetans in the Tibetan region.<ref name="tibet.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.tibet.com/HumanRights/poptrans.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2009-07-12 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090712112116/http://www.tibet.com/HumanRights/poptrans.html |archivedate=2009-07-12 |df= }}</ref> Some non-Tibetans migrating to the area may end up assimilating into and adapting to the Tibetan culture of the area to a degree, given its significance in the local culture. But if they adapt a more distinct identity to the Tibetans, Tibetan culture would be more likely to become endangered, particularly if Tibetans are the minority. The PRC gives the number of Tibetans in the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] as 2.4 million, as opposed to 190,000 non-Tibetans, and the number of Tibetans in all Tibetan autonomous entities combined (slightly smaller than the Greater Tibet claimed by exiled Tibetans) as 5.0 million, as opposed to 2.3 million non-Tibetans. In the TAR itself, much of the Han population is to be found in [[Lhasa]].<ref name="stats.gov.cn">[http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2007/html/B0209C.HTM National Bureau of Statistics of China] {{Link language|zh}}<!--Chinese--></ref>
 This statistic is in dispute primarily based on the distinction between the area often referred to as "[[Greater Tibet]]", in which ethnic Tibetans are a minority in the overall population, and the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]], in which ethnic Tibetans are a majority. [[Qinghai]], which is claimed by Tibetan exile groups, is made up of many ranging cultures local to different regions within the Province. Tibetan culture is local to and alive in many villages and towns throughout Qinghai.<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=uod9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=%22become+tibetan%22&source=bl&ots=aIOjidSi1X&sig=rYBHaADmJxCDE3qmpOmb2EA2WkI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiR19fr3vDWAhXDRiYKHUJ0CPsQ6AEIQjAI#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref>
@@ Line 150: / Line 150: @@
 Some of Tibet's towns and villages are located in India and Nepal. The total population for Tibetans in India is given at 94,203, and 13,514 in Nepal. One example of this is the city of [[Leh]] in in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, with a population of 27,513. The people of Leh are ethnic Tibetan, speaking Ladakhi, an East Tibetan language. Along with this, there are several Tibetan villages in northern Nepal. These regions are currently not claimed by Tibetan Exile Groups.<ref>https://www.betterplace.org/en/projects/44869-help-for-the-tibetan-village-briddhim-in-northern-nepal</ref><ref>http://tibetdata.org/projects/population/</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archivedate=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|accessdate=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref>
-<ref name="tibet.com"/> Referencing the population figures of [[Lhasa]], the [[Dalai Lama]] has recently accused China of "demographic aggression" while stating that the Tibetans had been reduced to a minority "in his homeland".<ref>[http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=18451&article=Dalai+Lama+accuses+China+of+'demographic+aggression'&t=1&c=1 Dalai Lama accuses China of 'demographic aggression']</ref> Exiled Tibetans have also expressed concern that the [[Qinghai-Tibet Railway]] ([[Xining]] to [[Lhasa]]) is intended to further facilitate the influx of Chinese migrants.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5133220.stm | work=BBC News | title=Hu opens world's highest railway | date=2006-07-01 | accessdate=2010-05-25}}</ref> The PRC does not recognize [[Greater Tibet]] as claimed by the government of Tibet in Exile.<ref>In aninterview May 31, 2008, the Dalai Lama declared: « "Greater Tibet", now, this very word comes from the Chinese government side. We never state the greater Tibet » [http://www.tibet.net/en/flash/2008/0508/31C0508.html His Holiness the Dalai Lama discusses the recent unrest inside Tibet with the editors of the Financial Times (FT)].</ref> The PRC government claims that the ethnically Tibetan areas outside the TAR were not controlled by the Tibetan government before 1959 in the first place, having been administered instead by other surrounding provinces for centuries. It further alleges that the idea of "Greater Tibet" was originally engineered by foreign [[Imperialism|imperialists]] in order to divide China amongst themselves ([[Mongolia]] being a striking precedent, gaining independence with [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] backing and subsequently aligning itself with the [[Soviet Union]]).<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/zhengfu/2002-11/15/content_630888.htm Xinhua News report] {{Link language|zh}}<!--Chinese--></ref>
+<ref name="tibet.com"/> Referencing the population figures of [[Lhasa]], the [[Dalai Lama]] has recently accused China of "demographic aggression" while stating that the Tibetans had been reduced to a minority "in his homeland".<ref>[http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=18451&article=Dalai+Lama+accuses+China+of+'demographic+aggression'&t=1&c=1 Dalai Lama accuses China of 'demographic aggression']</ref> Exiled Tibetans have also expressed concern that the [[Qinghai-Tibet Railway]] ([[Xining]] to [[Lhasa]]) is intended to further facilitate the influx of Chinese migrants.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5133220.stm | work=BBC News | title=Hu opens world's highest railway | date=2006-07-01 | accessdate=2010-05-25}}</ref> The PRC does not recognize [[Greater Tibet]] as claimed by the government of Tibet in Exile.<ref>In aninterview May 31, 2008, the Dalai Lama declared: « "Greater Tibet", now, this very word comes from the Chinese government side. We never state the greater Tibet » [http://www.tibet.net/en/flash/2008/0508/31C0508.html His Holiness the Dalai Lama discusses the recent unrest inside Tibet with the editors of the Financial Times (FT)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014115556/http://www.tibet.net/en/flash/2008/0508/31C0508.html |date=2009-10-14 }}.</ref> The PRC government claims that the ethnically Tibetan areas outside the TAR were not controlled by the Tibetan government before 1959 in the first place, having been administered instead by other surrounding provinces for centuries. It further alleges that the idea of "Greater Tibet" was originally engineered by foreign [[Imperialism|imperialists]] in order to divide China amongst themselves ([[Mongolia]] being a striking precedent, gaining independence with [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] backing and subsequently aligning itself with the [[Soviet Union]]).<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/zhengfu/2002-11/15/content_630888.htm Xinhua News report] {{Link language|zh}}<!--Chinese--></ref>
 The Government of Tibet in Exile disputes most demographic statistics released by the PRC government since they do not include members of the [[People's Liberation Army]] garrisoned in Tibet, or the floating population of unregistered migrants, and states that China is attempting to assimilate Tibet and further diminishing any chances of Tibetan political independence.<ref name="tibet.com"/> CCP member [[Jampa Phuntsok]], chairman of the TAR, has said that the central government has no policy of migration into Tibet due to its harsh high-altitude conditions, that the 6% Han in the TAR is a very fluid group mainly doing business or working, and that there is no immigration problem. (This report includes both permanent and temporary residences in Tibet, but excludes Tibetans studying or working outside of the TAR).<ref>[http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2003-08-27/1644645902s.shtml SINA News report] {{Link language|zh}}<!--Chinese--></ref> By 2006, 3% of the permanent residences in Tibet were of Han ethnicity, according to National Bureau of Statistics of China.<ref name="stats.gov.cn"/> The TAR has the lowest population density among China's province-level administrative regions, mostly due to its mountainous and harsh geographical features. As of 2000, 92.8% of the population were ethnic Tibetans, while Han Chinese comprised 6.1% of the population. In Lhasa, the capital of TAR, Hans made up 17%, far less than what many activists have claimed. Population control policies like the [[one-child policy]] apply only to [[Han Chinese]], not to minorities such as Tibetans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/banshi/2005-08/21/content_25059.htm|title=中华人民共和国人口与计划生育法|work=www.gov.cn|accessdate=26 September 2015}}</ref>