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NASA explored a program for ISS services in the mid 1990s entitled "Alt Access" for Alternate Access. While NASA funded Alt Access no further than preliminary studies, this program convinced numerous entrepreneurs that ISS could emerge as a significant market opportunity.
NASA explored a program for ISS services in the mid 1990s entitled "Alt Access" for Alternate Access. While NASA funded Alt Access no further than preliminary studies, this program convinced numerous entrepreneurs that ISS could emerge as a significant market opportunity.


After years of keeping orbital transport for [[Manned space mission|human spaceflight]] in-house, NASA concluded that firms in a [[free market]] could develop and operate such a system more efficiently and affordably than a government [[bureaucracy]].<ref name="griffin_2006">{{Cite web|publisher=NASA |date=2006-10-20 |title=X Prize Comments by Mike Griffin |url=http://www.comspacewatch.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=22396 |accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref> The then NASA Administrator [[Michael D. Griffin]] stated that without affordable Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS), the agency will not have enough funds remaining to achieve the objectives of the [[Vision for Space Exploration]].<ref name="griffin_2006"/> In November 2005, Dr. Griffin articulated that:
After years of keeping orbital transport for [[Manned space mission|human spaceflight]] in-house, NASA concluded that firms in a [[free market]] could develop and operate such a system more efficiently and affordably than a government [[bureaucracy]].<ref name="griffin_2006">{{Cite web |publisher=NASA |date=2006-10-20 |title=X Prize Comments by Mike Griffin |url=http://www.comspacewatch.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=22396 |accessdate=2007-06-06 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090824204943/http://www.comspacewatch.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=22396 |archivedate=2009-08-24 |df= }}</ref> The then NASA Administrator [[Michael D. Griffin]] stated that without affordable Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS), the agency will not have enough funds remaining to achieve the objectives of the [[Vision for Space Exploration]].<ref name="griffin_2006"/> In November 2005, Dr. Griffin articulated that:


:''With the advent of the [[ISS]], there will exist for the first time a strong, identifiable market for "routine" transportation service to and from LEO, and that this will be only the first step in what will be a huge opportunity for truly commercial space enterprise. We believe that when we engage the engine of competition, these services will be provided in a more cost-effective fashion than when the government has to do it.''<ref>{{cite conference |first = Michael |last = Griffin |author2=Valin Thorn |title = Commercial Crew & Cargo Program Overview |page = 2 |booktitle = 45th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting |publisher = NASA |date=2007-01-11 |location = Reno, Nevada |url = http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/168735main_AIAA_2007_COTS.pdf |accessdate = 2007-06-06 |format=PDF}}</ref>
:''With the advent of the [[ISS]], there will exist for the first time a strong, identifiable market for "routine" transportation service to and from LEO, and that this will be only the first step in what will be a huge opportunity for truly commercial space enterprise. We believe that when we engage the engine of competition, these services will be provided in a more cost-effective fashion than when the government has to do it.''<ref>{{cite conference |first = Michael |last = Griffin |author2=Valin Thorn |title = Commercial Crew & Cargo Program Overview |page = 2 |booktitle = 45th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting |publisher = NASA |date=2007-01-11 |location = Reno, Nevada |url = http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/168735main_AIAA_2007_COTS.pdf |accessdate = 2007-06-06 |format=PDF}}</ref>


Furthermore, if such services were unavailable by the end of 2010, NASA would've been forced to purchase orbital transportation services on foreign spacecraft such as the [[Russian Federal Space Agency]]'s [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] and [[Progress spacecraft]], the [[European Space Agency]]'s [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]], or the [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]]'s [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] since NASA's own [[Crew Exploration Vehicle]], since refocused, would not have been ready until 2014. NASA asserted that once COTS was operational, it would no longer procure Russian cargo delivery services.<ref name="faa-Gerstenmaier">{{cite conference |first = William |last = Gerstenmaier |title = Need for Commercial Cargo to ISS |page = 2 |booktitle = FAA Commercial Space Transportation Advisory Council |publisher = FAA |date=2007-05-18 |location = Washington, D.C. |url = http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/industry/advisory_committee/meeting_news/media/COMSTAC_Gerstenmaier%205_18_07.ppt |accessdate = 2007-06-13 }}</ref> On May 22, 2012, [[William H. Gerstenmaier|Bill Gerstenmaier]] confirmed that NASA was no longer purchasing any cargo resupply services from Russia and would rely solely on the American CRS vehicles, the [[SpaceX Dragon]] and Orbital Sciences' [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]]; with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads delivered on the European [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ATV]] and the Japanese [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hJNNiYPyAeQ|title=SpaceX/NASA Discuss launch of Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon capsule|date=22 May 2012|publisher=NASA|accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref>
Furthermore, if such services were unavailable by the end of 2010, NASA would've been forced to purchase orbital transportation services on foreign spacecraft such as the [[Russian Federal Space Agency]]'s [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] and [[Progress spacecraft]], the [[European Space Agency]]'s [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]], or the [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]]'s [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] since NASA's own [[Crew Exploration Vehicle]], since refocused, would not have been ready until 2014. NASA asserted that once COTS was operational, it would no longer procure Russian cargo delivery services.<ref name="faa-Gerstenmaier">{{cite conference |first = William |last = Gerstenmaier |title = Need for Commercial Cargo to ISS |page = 2 |booktitle = FAA Commercial Space Transportation Advisory Council |publisher = FAA |date = 2007-05-18 |location = Washington, D.C. |url = http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/industry/advisory_committee/meeting_news/media/COMSTAC_Gerstenmaier%205_18_07.ppt |accessdate = 2007-06-13 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090226213845/http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/industry/advisory_committee/meeting_news/media/COMSTAC_Gerstenmaier%205_18_07.ppt |archivedate = 2009-02-26 |df = }}</ref> On May 22, 2012, [[William H. Gerstenmaier|Bill Gerstenmaier]] confirmed that NASA was no longer purchasing any cargo resupply services from Russia and would rely solely on the American CRS vehicles, the [[SpaceX Dragon]] and Orbital Sciences' [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]]; with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads delivered on the European [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ATV]] and the Japanese [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hJNNiYPyAeQ|title=SpaceX/NASA Discuss launch of Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon capsule|date=22 May 2012|publisher=NASA|accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref>


NASA anticipates that COTS services to ISS will be necessary through at least 2015. NASA projects at most a half-dozen COTS flights a year that would transport 10 tonnes annually.<ref name="faa-Gerstenmaier"/> The NASA Administrator has suggested that space transportation services procurement may be expanded to orbital [[Propellant depot|fuel depots]] and [[Moon#Physical characteristics|lunar surface]] deliveries should the first phase of COTS prove successful.<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/203082main_C3PO%20-TEC%20Briefing%20Nov_2007.pdf "Commercial Space Development – What’s the Next?"]. NASA, November 15, 2007.</ref>
NASA anticipates that COTS services to ISS will be necessary through at least 2015. NASA projects at most a half-dozen COTS flights a year that would transport 10 tonnes annually.<ref name="faa-Gerstenmaier"/> The NASA Administrator has suggested that space transportation services procurement may be expanded to orbital [[Propellant depot|fuel depots]] and [[Moon#Physical characteristics|lunar surface]] deliveries should the first phase of COTS prove successful.<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/203082main_C3PO%20-TEC%20Briefing%20Nov_2007.pdf "Commercial Space Development – What’s the Next?"]. NASA, November 15, 2007.</ref>
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On November 8, 2006 RpK and ATK announced that ATK would become the lead contractor for the K-1.<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=ATK |date=2006-11-08 |title=Rocketplane Kistler and ATK Announce Agreement for K-1 Launch Vehicle and COTS Program|url=http://atk.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_releases&item=635 |accessdate=2006-11-21}}</ref>
On November 8, 2006 RpK and ATK announced that ATK would become the lead contractor for the K-1.<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=ATK |date=2006-11-08 |title=Rocketplane Kistler and ATK Announce Agreement for K-1 Launch Vehicle and COTS Program|url=http://atk.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_releases&item=635 |accessdate=2006-11-21}}</ref>


NASA terminated the COTS agreement with RpK in September 2007 after NASA warned RpK that it had failed to raise sufficient private funding by the July 31, 2007 deadline,<ref>{{Cite news|publisher=Aviation Week |date=2007-09-10 |title=RpK's COTS Contract Terminated|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/rocketplane091007.xml&headline=RpK's%20COTS%20Contract%20Terminated%20&channel=space |accessdate=2007-09-10}}</ref><ref name="WSJ20070910">[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB118946125133622954?mod=googlenews_wsj NASA Cuts Funds for Private Space Venture]</ref> freeing up $175 million from the COTS budget to be awarded to another company or companies.
NASA terminated the COTS agreement with RpK in September 2007 after NASA warned RpK that it had failed to raise sufficient private funding by the July 31, 2007 deadline,<ref>{{Cite news |publisher=Aviation Week |date=2007-09-10 |title=RpK's COTS Contract Terminated |url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/rocketplane091007.xml&headline=RpK's%20COTS%20Contract%20Terminated%20&channel=space |accessdate=2007-09-10 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512185739/http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news%2Frocketplane091007.xml&headline=RpK%27s%20COTS%20Contract%20Terminated%20&channel=space |archivedate=2011-05-12 |df= }}</ref><ref name="WSJ20070910">[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB118946125133622954?mod=googlenews_wsj NASA Cuts Funds for Private Space Venture]</ref> freeing up $175 million from the COTS budget to be awarded to another company or companies.


Boeing submitted a proposal in conjunction with Arianespace to launch the ESA ATV module on a Delta IV rocket.<ref name="flightglobal.com">[https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/boeing-set-to-offer-delta-iv-launched-atv-196453/]</ref> Whereas the ESA launches the ATV on an Ariane 5, the two companies worked together to make this proposal.<ref name="flightglobal.com"/> The ATV can carry up to 7.6 metric tons with a suitable launcher.<ref name="flightglobal.com"/>
Boeing submitted a proposal in conjunction with Arianespace to launch the ESA ATV module on a Delta IV rocket.<ref name="flightglobal.com">[https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/boeing-set-to-offer-delta-iv-launched-atv-196453/]</ref> Whereas the ESA launches the ATV on an Ariane 5, the two companies worked together to make this proposal.<ref name="flightglobal.com"/> The ATV can carry up to 7.6 metric tons with a suitable launcher.<ref name="flightglobal.com"/>
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By June 18, 2007, NASA had signed separate non-reimbursable Space Act Agreements with four firms.<ref>{{Cite news|publisher=Space News |date=2007-06-19 |title=NASA Signs Space Act Agreements with Three More Firms |url=http://www.space.com/news/070618_sn_COTSweb.html |accessdate=2007-12-11}}</ref> These agreements included no financial support, however NASA agreed to share information to help the companies to develop their proposed vehicles.
By June 18, 2007, NASA had signed separate non-reimbursable Space Act Agreements with four firms.<ref>{{Cite news|publisher=Space News |date=2007-06-19 |title=NASA Signs Space Act Agreements with Three More Firms |url=http://www.space.com/news/070618_sn_COTSweb.html |accessdate=2007-12-11}}</ref> These agreements included no financial support, however NASA agreed to share information to help the companies to develop their proposed vehicles.


On October 22, 2007, NASA solicited proposals for the $175 million in unawarded first round funds.<ref>{{Cite news|publisher=Aviation Week |date=2007-10-19 |title=NASA Reopens COTS Bidding|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/bidding101907.xml&headline=NASA%20Reopens%20COTS%20Bidding&channel=space |accessdate=2007-10-28}}</ref> Some of the new contenders who entered before the deadline in November 2007 for the funding were [[Spacehab]], [[t/Space]], [[Andrews Space]], [[PlanetSpace]] and [[SpaceDev]].<ref>{{Cite news|publisher=Space Fellowship |date=2008-01-07 |title=COTS 1.5 Roundup|url=http://spacefellowship.com/News/?p=4127 |accessdate=2008-01-12}}</ref>
On October 22, 2007, NASA solicited proposals for the $175 million in unawarded first round funds.<ref>{{Cite news |publisher=Aviation Week |date=2007-10-19 |title=NASA Reopens COTS Bidding |url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/bidding101907.xml&headline=NASA%20Reopens%20COTS%20Bidding&channel=space |accessdate=2007-10-28 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512185753/http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news%2Fbidding101907.xml&headline=NASA%20Reopens%20COTS%20Bidding&channel=space |archivedate=2011-05-12 |df= }}</ref> Some of the new contenders who entered before the deadline in November 2007 for the funding were [[Spacehab]], [[t/Space]], [[Andrews Space]], [[PlanetSpace]] and [[SpaceDev]].<ref>{{Cite news|publisher=Space Fellowship |date=2008-01-07 |title=COTS 1.5 Roundup|url=http://spacefellowship.com/News/?p=4127 |accessdate=2008-01-12}}</ref>


In January 2008 industry sources claimed that the field had been downselected to four; Spacehab, Andrews Space, PlanetSpace and Orbital Sciences, with the announcement date set to February 7.<ref>{{Cite news|publisher=Imaginova/Space.com |date=2008-01-08 |title=NASA Picks Finalists for Space Station Resupply Demonstrations |url=http://www.space.com/news/080118-nasa-cots-finalists.html |accessdate=2008-01-27}}</ref> Several sources later suggested that Boeing and not Andrews was a final contestant.<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=forum.NasaSpaceflight.com |date=2008-02-05 |title=COTS I ReAward Final Cut Poll |url=http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/forums/thread-view.asp?tid=11516&start=151&mid=238477#M238477 }}</ref>
In January 2008 industry sources claimed that the field had been downselected to four; Spacehab, Andrews Space, PlanetSpace and Orbital Sciences, with the announcement date set to February 7.<ref>{{Cite news|publisher=Imaginova/Space.com |date=2008-01-08 |title=NASA Picks Finalists for Space Station Resupply Demonstrations |url=http://www.space.com/news/080118-nasa-cots-finalists.html |accessdate=2008-01-27}}</ref> Several sources later suggested that Boeing and not Andrews was a final contestant.<ref>{{Cite web |publisher=forum.NasaSpaceflight.com |date=2008-02-05 |title=COTS I ReAward Final Cut Poll |url=http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/forums/thread-view.asp?tid=11516&start=151&mid=238477#M238477 }}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>


On February 19, 2008, the second round selection was made to [[Orbital Sciences Corporation]], for the [[Cygnus spacecraft]].<ref name="Cygnus">[http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?cid=5361 NASASpaceflight.com – Orbital beat a dozen competitors to win NASA COTS contract]</ref> NASA's selection statement showed that Orbital beat Boeing on expected lower costs and the added benefit of a new medium lift launcher Taurus II with Andrews, PlanetSpace and Spacehab being eliminated on funding concerns.<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=forum.NasaSpaceflight.com |date=2008-04-24 |title=COTS Selection Statement – Feb, 08 |url=http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=12822.0}}</ref>
On February 19, 2008, the second round selection was made to [[Orbital Sciences Corporation]], for the [[Cygnus spacecraft]].<ref name="Cygnus">[http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?cid=5361 NASASpaceflight.com – Orbital beat a dozen competitors to win NASA COTS contract]</ref> NASA's selection statement showed that Orbital beat Boeing on expected lower costs and the added benefit of a new medium lift launcher Taurus II with Andrews, PlanetSpace and Spacehab being eliminated on funding concerns.<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=forum.NasaSpaceflight.com |date=2008-04-24 |title=COTS Selection Statement – Feb, 08 |url=http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=12822.0}}</ref>
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| {{No}}
| {{No}}
|-
|-
| [[PlanetSpace]]<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=PlanetSpace|date=2007-02-01 |title=NASA signs Space Act Agreement with Planetspace |url=http://www.planetspace.org/pdf/PressRelease020107.pdf |accessdate=2007-12-11 |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |publisher=PlanetSpace |date=2007-11-21 |title=PLANETSPACE, Lockheed Martin and ATK team up to bid on NASA COTS|url=http://www.planetspace.org/pdf/PressRelease112107.pdf |accessdate=2007-12-11 |format=PDF}}</ref>
| [[PlanetSpace]]<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=PlanetSpace |date=2007-02-01 |title=NASA signs Space Act Agreement with Planetspace |url=http://www.planetspace.org/pdf/PressRelease020107.pdf |accessdate=2007-12-11 |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317041209/http://www.planetspace.org/pdf/PressRelease020107.pdf |archivedate=2007-03-17 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |publisher=PlanetSpace |date=2007-11-21 |title=PLANETSPACE, Lockheed Martin and ATK team up to bid on NASA COTS |url=http://www.planetspace.org/pdf/PressRelease112107.pdf |accessdate=2007-12-11 |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723184624/http://www.planetspace.org/pdf/PressRelease112107.pdf |archivedate=2008-07-23 |df= }}</ref>
| [[Lockheed Martin|Orbital Transfer Vehicle]]<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2007/11/30/490524.aspx | title = Strange space bedfellows |publisher = MSNBC}}</ref>
| [[Lockheed Martin|Orbital Transfer Vehicle]]<ref>{{Cite web |url = http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2007/11/30/490524.aspx |title = Strange space bedfellows |publisher = MSNBC |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071202054149/http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2007/11/30/490524.aspx |archivedate = 2007-12-02 |df = }}</ref>
| [[Athena III]]<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?cid=5337 |title = ATK's new vehicle to provide multi-access options |first = Chris |last = Bergin |date = 2008-01-21}}</ref>
| [[Athena III]]<ref>{{Cite web |url = http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?cid=5337 |title = ATK's new vehicle to provide multi-access options |first = Chris |last = Bergin |date = 2008-01-21 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080124170355/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?cid=5337 |archivedate = 2008-01-24 |df = }}</ref>
| [[Alliant Techsystems]], [[Lockheed Martin]]
| [[Alliant Techsystems]], [[Lockheed Martin]]
| {{No}}
| {{No}}
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| {{No}}
| {{No}}
|-
|-
| [[t/Space]]<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=t/Space|date=2007-02-01 |title=NASA signs agreement with t/Space |url=http://www.transformspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.view&newsid=7F2AC3EA-D8D6-2305-B3F4768809786AAF |accessdate=2007-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |publisher=t/Space|date=2007-11-29 |title=t/Space enters COTS second round |url=http://www.transformspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.view&newsid=8D34F05A-E7F7-11C1-74E37AB2DBDA99CC |accessdate=2007-12-11}}</ref>
| [[t/Space]]<ref>{{cite press release|publisher=t/Space|date=2007-02-01|title=NASA signs agreement with t/Space|url=http://www.transformspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.view&newsid=7F2AC3EA-D8D6-2305-B3F4768809786AAF|accessdate=2007-12-11|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202194053/http://www.transformspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.view&newsid=7F2AC3EA-D8D6-2305-B3F4768809786AAF|archivedate=2007-02-02|df=}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|publisher=t/Space|date=2007-11-29|title=t/Space enters COTS second round|url=http://www.transformspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.view&newsid=8D34F05A-E7F7-11C1-74E37AB2DBDA99CC|accessdate=2007-12-11|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130165647/http://www.transformspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.view&newsid=8D34F05A-E7F7-11C1-74E37AB2DBDA99CC|archivedate=2007-11-30|df=}}</ref>
| [[t/Space#CXV proposal|Crew Transfer Vehicle]]
| [[t/Space#CXV proposal|Crew Transfer Vehicle]]
| [[AirLaunch|QuickReach]]
| [[AirLaunch|QuickReach]]
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| {{No}}
| {{No}}
|-
|-
| [[Constellation Services International]]<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=Constellation Services International, Inc. |date=2007-06-18 |title=NASA Signs Agreement with CSI |url=http://www.constellationservices.com/csi%20release_cots%20saa_18jun07.pdf |accessdate=2007-12-11 |format=PDF}}</ref>
| [[Constellation Services International]]<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=Constellation Services International, Inc. |date=2007-06-18 |title=NASA Signs Agreement with CSI |url=http://www.constellationservices.com/csi%20release_cots%20saa_18jun07.pdf |accessdate=2007-12-11 |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070728131705/http://www.constellationservices.com/csi%20release_cots%20saa_18jun07.pdf |archivedate=2007-07-28 |df= }}</ref>
| [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]]
| [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]]
| [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz]]
| [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz]]
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| [[Space Systems/Loral#1300 series platform|Space Tug]]
| [[Space Systems/Loral#1300 series platform|Space Tug]]
| [[Aquarius Launch Vehicle]]
| [[Aquarius Launch Vehicle]]
| [[Constellation Services International]]<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=Constellation Services International, Inc.|date=2007-12-11 |title=CONSTELLATION SERVICES INTERNATIONAL AND SPACE SYSTEMS LORAL TEAM ON NASA COTS PROPOSAL USING A U.S. VERSION OF CSI’S LEO EXPRESSSM CARGO SYSTEM |url=http://www.constellationservices.com/Press_Release_20071211.pdf |accessdate=2007-12-11 |format=PDF}}</ref>
| [[Constellation Services International]]<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=Constellation Services International, Inc. |date=2007-12-11 |title=CONSTELLATION SERVICES INTERNATIONAL AND SPACE SYSTEMS LORAL TEAM ON NASA COTS PROPOSAL USING A U.S. VERSION OF CSI’S LEO EXPRESSSM CARGO SYSTEM |url=http://www.constellationservices.com/Press_Release_20071211.pdf |accessdate=2007-12-11 |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226213850/http://www.constellationservices.com/Press_Release_20071211.pdf |archivedate=2009-02-26 |df= }}</ref>
| {{dunno}}
| {{dunno}}
| {{No}}
| {{No}}

Revision as of 08:40, 8 November 2017

Logo used for the COTS program
Insignia of NASA Insignia of the International Space Station program
NASA's Commercial
Orbital Transportation Services
Contracts
Commercial Resupply Services
CSTC
2007
CRS 1
2008
CRS 2
2014
Commercial Crew Program
CCDev 1
2010
CCDev 2
2011
CCiCap
2012
CPC 1
2012
CCtCap
2014

Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) was a NASA program to coordinate the delivery of crew and cargo to the International Space Station by private companies. The program was announced on January 18, 2006[1] and successfully flew all cargo demonstration flights by September 2013. NASA has suggested that "Commercial services to ISS will be necessary through at least 2015."[2]

COTS is related but separate from the

Commercial Crew Development
(CCDev) is a related program, aimed specifically at developing crew rotation services. It is similar to COTS-D. All three programs are managed by NASA's Commercial Crew and Cargo Program Office (C3PO).

NASA signed agreements with

Orbital Sciences and SpaceX
to utilize their COTS cargo vehicles.

NASA's Final Report on the Commercial Orbit Transportation Services program considers it an unqualified success and a model for future public-private collaboration. Compared to traditional costs-plus contracts employed by NASA, such as the $12 billion Orion (spacecraft) contract, the unprecedented efficiency of the $800 million COTS investment resulted in "two new U.S. medium-class launch vehicles and two automated cargo spacecraft".[4]

Purpose

Instead of flying payloads to the International Space Station (ISS) on government-operated vehicles, NASA would spend $500 million (less than the cost of a single Space Shuttle flight) through 2010 to finance the demonstration of orbital transportation services from commercial providers. Unlike any previous NASA project, the proposed spacecraft are intended to be owned and financed primarily by the companies themselves and will be designed to serve both U.S. government agencies and commercial customers. NASA will contract for missions as its needs become clear.

This is more challenging than existent commercial space transportation because it requires precision

rendezvous and possibly docking with another spacecraft. The private spaceflight vendors[5]
are competing for four specific service areas:

  • Capability level A: External unpressurized cargo delivery and disposal
  • Capability level B: Internal pressurized cargo delivery and disposal
  • Capability level C: Internal pressurized cargo delivery, return and recovery
  • Capability level D: Crew Transportation (was not funded, but formed the basis of CCDev)

Program rationale

NASA explored a program for ISS services in the mid 1990s entitled "Alt Access" for Alternate Access. While NASA funded Alt Access no further than preliminary studies, this program convinced numerous entrepreneurs that ISS could emerge as a significant market opportunity.

After years of keeping orbital transport for

human spaceflight in-house, NASA concluded that firms in a free market could develop and operate such a system more efficiently and affordably than a government bureaucracy.[6] The then NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin stated that without affordable Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS), the agency will not have enough funds remaining to achieve the objectives of the Vision for Space Exploration.[6]
In November 2005, Dr. Griffin articulated that:

With the advent of the
ISS, there will exist for the first time a strong, identifiable market for "routine" transportation service to and from LEO, and that this will be only the first step in what will be a huge opportunity for truly commercial space enterprise. We believe that when we engage the engine of competition, these services will be provided in a more cost-effective fashion than when the government has to do it.[7]

Furthermore, if such services were unavailable by the end of 2010, NASA would've been forced to purchase orbital transportation services on foreign spacecraft such as the

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's H-II Transfer Vehicle since NASA's own Crew Exploration Vehicle, since refocused, would not have been ready until 2014. NASA asserted that once COTS was operational, it would no longer procure Russian cargo delivery services.[8] On May 22, 2012, Bill Gerstenmaier confirmed that NASA was no longer purchasing any cargo resupply services from Russia and would rely solely on the American CRS vehicles, the SpaceX Dragon and Orbital Sciences' Cygnus; with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads delivered on the European ATV and the Japanese HTV.[9]

NASA anticipates that COTS services to ISS will be necessary through at least 2015. NASA projects at most a half-dozen COTS flights a year that would transport 10 tonnes annually.

fuel depots and lunar surface deliveries should the first phase of COTS prove successful.[10]

History

First round

In May 2006, NASA selected six semifinalist proposals for further evaluation.[11]

On August 18, 2006, NASA's Exploration Systems Mission Directorate (ESMD) announced that SpaceX and Rocketplane Kistler (RpK) won Phase I of the COTS program.[12] NASA planned to engage winners in funded Space Act agreements through 2010.

On November 8, 2006 RpK and ATK announced that ATK would become the lead contractor for the K-1.[13]

NASA terminated the COTS agreement with RpK in September 2007 after NASA warned RpK that it had failed to raise sufficient private funding by the July 31, 2007 deadline,[14][15] freeing up $175 million from the COTS budget to be awarded to another company or companies.

Boeing submitted a proposal in conjunction with Arianespace to launch the ESA ATV module on a Delta IV rocket.[16] Whereas the ESA launches the ATV on an Ariane 5, the two companies worked together to make this proposal.[16] The ATV can carry up to 7.6 metric tons with a suitable launcher.[16]

Second round

By June 18, 2007, NASA had signed separate non-reimbursable Space Act Agreements with four firms.[17] These agreements included no financial support, however NASA agreed to share information to help the companies to develop their proposed vehicles.

On October 22, 2007, NASA solicited proposals for the $175 million in unawarded first round funds.

Spacehab, t/Space, Andrews Space, PlanetSpace and SpaceDev.[19]

In January 2008 industry sources claimed that the field had been downselected to four; Spacehab, Andrews Space, PlanetSpace and Orbital Sciences, with the announcement date set to February 7.[20] Several sources later suggested that Boeing and not Andrews was a final contestant.[21]

On February 19, 2008, the second round selection was made to

Cygnus spacecraft.[22] NASA's selection statement showed that Orbital beat Boeing on expected lower costs and the added benefit of a new medium lift launcher Taurus II with Andrews, PlanetSpace and Spacehab being eliminated on funding concerns.[23]

Following the original $500M Space Act Agreement, an additional $288M in "augmentation" funding was awarded to the two contractors before the demonstration flights.[24]

Program conclusion

The COTS program was successfully concluded in November 2013 after two companies, SpaceX and Orbital Sciences, designed, built and launched "a pair of new spacecraft on rockets that also were newly designed".[25] NASA has published its own history of the COTS program including the controlling of the development program using Space Act Agreements (SAA), with lessons for future programmes.[26]

Awards

  • Rocketplane Kistler — originally awarded contract worth $207 million; RpK received only $32.1 million before NASA terminated their contract for failure to complete milestones in October 2007.
  • Dragon C2+ to the International Space Station. After rendezvousing, berthing and unloading the capsule successfully reentered landing in the Pacific Ocean.[27]

Competitors

More than twenty organizations submitted COTS proposals in March 2006 of which twenty were publicly disclosed.[30] NASA received new COTS proposals from at least seven firms by November 21, 2007.[31]

Company Spacecraft Launch vehicle Partner First
round
participant 		First
round
semi-finalist 		Second
round
participant 		Won
round
Orbital Sciences[32]
Cygnus[22]
 Antares[22][33] ? No Yes Yes
SpaceX Dragon Falcon 9 Yes Yes Yes Yes
Andrews Space[34] Andrews Cargo Module Hercules
MDA
 Yes Yes Yes No
Boeing
 Automated Transfer Vehicle[clarification needed]
Delta IV[clarification needed
]
EADS Astrium[clarification needed
] 		? No Yes No
PlanetSpace[35][36] Orbital Transfer Vehicle[37]
Athena III[38]
 Alliant Techsystems, Lockheed Martin No No Yes No
SpaceHab[39][40]
ARCTUS
 Atlas V Lockheed Martin Yes Yes Yes No
Rocketplane Kistler
K-1
K-1
Orbital Sciences[41]
 Yes Yes No No
Venturer Aerospace
S-550 (spacecraft)[42]
 Falcon 9 SpaceX Yes No No No
SpaceDev[43][44] Dream Chaser Atlas V Lockheed Martin Yes Yes ? No
t/Space[45][46] Crew Transfer Vehicle QuickReach AirLaunch Yes Yes ? No
Constellation Services International[47]
Progress
 Soyuz
RKK Energia
 ? No ? No
Lockheed Martin ATV, H-II Transfer Vehicle Atlas V
JAXA
 ? No ? No
PanAero Space Van[citation needed] Space Van ? No ? No
Space Systems/Loral
Space Tug
Aquarius Launch Vehicle
 Constellation Services International[48] ? No ? No
Advent Launch Services[citation needed] ? ? ? No ? No
Exploration Partners[citation needed] ? ? ? No ? No
Odyssey Space Research[citation needed] ? ? ? No ? No
Thortek Laboratories[citation needed] ? ? ? No ? No
Triton Systems[citation needed] ? ? ? No ? No

Commercial Resupply Services

Main article: Commercial Resupply Services
In May 2012, SpaceX completed its final demonstration mission.
Cygnus

On December 22, 2008, NASA stated they would discuss the contract selection to provide commercial cargo resupply services for the International Space Station.[49] NASA announced the awarding of contracts to both SpaceX and Orbital Sciences Corporation in a press conference on December 23, 2008.[3] The contracts include a minimum of 20 missions, 12 missions for SpaceX and 8 missions for Orbital Sciences ($3.5 Billion).[50][51] PlanetSpace submitted a protest to the Government Accountability Office after receiving a NASA debriefing on the outcome of the award.[52] On April 22, 2009 GAO publicly released its decision to deny the protest.[53]

See also

References

  1. ^ "NASA Seeks Proposals for Crew and Cargo Transportation to Orbit" (Press release). NASA. 2006-01-18. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  2. ^ Space Operations Mission Directorate (2006-08-30). "Human Space Flight Transition Plan" (PDF). NASA.
  3. ^ a b "NASA Awards Space Station Commercial Resupply Services Contracts". NASA, December 23, 2008.
  4. ^ "NASA Releases COTS Final Report" (Press release). NASA. 2014-06-03. Retrieved 2014-06-08.
  5. ^ "COTS Vendors". NASA Johnson Space Center. Archived from the original (xls) on 2006-09-29.
  6. ^ a b "X Prize Comments by Mike Griffin". NASA. 2006-10-20. Archived from the original on 2009-08-24. Retrieved 2007-06-06. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Griffin, Michael; Valin Thorn (2007-01-11). "Commercial Crew & Cargo Program Overview" (PDF). 45th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting. Reno, Nevada: NASA. p. 2. Retrieved 2007-06-06. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ a b Gerstenmaier, William (2007-05-18). "Need for Commercial Cargo to ISS". FAA Commercial Space Transportation Advisory Council. Washington, D.C.: FAA. p. 2. Archived from the original on 2009-02-26. Retrieved 2007-06-13. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ "SpaceX/NASA Discuss launch of Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon capsule". NASA. 22 May 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
  10. ^ "Commercial Space Development – What’s the Next?". NASA, November 15, 2007.
  11. ^ Valin Thorn, "Commercial Crew & Cargo Program Overview," AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting, January 11, 2007 (accessed 28 April 2014). See also: Belfiore, Michael (May 9, 2006). "NASA makes first round of cuts for COTS". Dispatches from the Final Frontier. Archived from the original on 2006-06-14. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  12. ^ "NASA Selects Crew and Cargo Transportation to Orbit Partners" (Press release). NASA. 2006-08-18. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  13. ^ "Rocketplane Kistler and ATK Announce Agreement for K-1 Launch Vehicle and COTS Program" (Press release). ATK. 2006-11-08. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  14. ^ "RpK's COTS Contract Terminated". Aviation Week. 2007-09-10. Archived from the original on 2011-05-12. Retrieved 2007-09-10. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ NASA Cuts Funds for Private Space Venture
  16. ^ a b c [1]
  17. ^ "NASA Signs Space Act Agreements with Three More Firms". Space News. 2007-06-19. Retrieved 2007-12-11.
  18. ^ "NASA Reopens COTS Bidding". Aviation Week. 2007-10-19. Archived from the original on 2011-05-12. Retrieved 2007-10-28. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ "COTS 1.5 Roundup". Space Fellowship. 2008-01-07. Retrieved 2008-01-12.
  20. ^ "NASA Picks Finalists for Space Station Resupply Demonstrations". Imaginova/Space.com. 2008-01-08. Retrieved 2008-01-27.
  21. ^ "COTS I ReAward Final Cut Poll". forum.NasaSpaceflight.com. 2008-02-05.[permanent dead link]
  22. ^ a b c NASASpaceflight.com – Orbital beat a dozen competitors to win NASA COTS contract
  23. ^ "COTS Selection Statement – Feb, 08". forum.NasaSpaceflight.com. 2008-04-24.
  24. ^ a b c "Statement of William H. Gerstenmaier Associate Administrator for Space Operations before the Committee on Science, Space and Technology Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics U.S. House of Representatives" (PDF). U.S. House of Representatives. 26 May 2011. Retrieved 28 April 2014.
  25. ^ Messier, Doug (2013-12-06). "NASA Holds Commercial Crew Pre-proposal Conference". Parabolic Arc. Retrieved 2013-12-07.
  26. ^ "Commercial Orbital Transportation Services – A New Era in Spaceflight" (PDF). NASA. February 2014. NASA/SP-2014-617. Retrieved June 4, 2014.
  27. ^ Moskowitz, Clara (31 May 2012). "SpaceX Dragon Capsule Splashes Down in Pacific, Ending Historic Test Flight". Space.com. New York. Archived from the original on 31 May 2012. Retrieved 31 May 2012. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ "Orbital Successfully Launches First Antares Rocket". press release. Orbital Sciences Corporation. Retrieved April 21, 2013.
  29. ^ Josh Byerly, Trent J. Perrotto. "Press RELEASE 13-284 NASA Partner Orbital Sciences Launches Demonstration Mission to Space Station". www.nasa.gov. NASA. Retrieved September 19, 2013.
  30. ^ "Private ventures vie to service space station". MSNBC. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  31. ^ "Space Systems/Loral Proposes Bus for NASA's Cargo Needs" (Press release). Space News. 2007-12-10. Retrieved 2007-12-10.
  32. ^ "Orbital and Rocketplane Kistler Announce Strategic Relationship" (Press release). Rocketplane Limited, Inc. 2006-07-24. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  33. ^ http://www.spaceflightnow.com/antares/111212antares/
  34. ^ "COTS 2006 Demo Competition". NASA. 2012-03-02. Retrieved 2012-11-18.
  35. ^ "NASA signs Space Act Agreement with Planetspace" (PDF) (Press release). PlanetSpace. 2007-02-01. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-03-17. Retrieved 2007-12-11. {{cite press release}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ "PLANETSPACE, Lockheed Martin and ATK team up to bid on NASA COTS" (PDF) (Press release). PlanetSpace. 2007-11-21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-07-23. Retrieved 2007-12-11. {{cite press release}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  37. ^ "Strange space bedfellows". MSNBC. Archived from the original on 2007-12-02. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  38. ^ Bergin, Chris (2008-01-21). "ATK's new vehicle to provide multi-access options". Archived from the original on 2008-01-24. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  39. ^ "Spacehab Finalist as NASA's Commercial Space Station Logistics Supplier" (Press release). SPACEHAB, Inc. 2006-05-10. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  40. ^ "SPACEHAB RESPONDS TO NASA RFP SEEKING COMMERCIAL ISS RESUPPLY MEANS" (Press release). SPACEHAB, Inc. 2007-11-29. Retrieved 2007-12-11.
  41. ^ "Orbital To Pull Out of Rocketplane Kistler's COTS Team" (Press release). Space News. 2006-09-25. Retrieved 2007-12-17.
  42. ^ Boyle, Alan (2006-03-20). "Private ventures vie to service space station – New Space Race". MSNBC. Retrieved 2013-03-05.
  43. ^ "SpaceDev Selected as a Finalist in NASA's Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Solicitation" (Press release). SpaceDev, Inc. 2006-05-15. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  44. ^ "SPACEDEV SIGNS SPACE ACT AGREEMENT WITH NASA FOR DEVELOPMENT OF COMMERCIAL ACCESS TO SPACE" (Press release). SpaceDev. 2007-06-18. Retrieved 2007-12-11.
  45. ^ "NASA signs agreement with t/Space" (Press release). t/Space. 2007-02-01. Archived from the original on 2007-02-02. Retrieved 2007-12-11. {{cite press release}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  46. ^ "t/Space enters COTS second round" (Press release). t/Space. 2007-11-29. Archived from the original on 2007-11-30. Retrieved 2007-12-11. {{cite press release}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  47. ^ "NASA Signs Agreement with CSI" (PDF) (Press release). Constellation Services International, Inc. 2007-06-18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-07-28. Retrieved 2007-12-11. {{cite press release}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  48. ^ "CONSTELLATION SERVICES INTERNATIONAL AND SPACE SYSTEMS LORAL TEAM ON NASA COTS PROPOSAL USING A U.S. VERSION OF CSI'S LEO EXPRESSSM CARGO SYSTEM" (PDF) (Press release). Constellation Services International, Inc. 2007-12-11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-26. Retrieved 2007-12-11. {{cite press release}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  49. ^ "NASA to Announce Space Station Resupply Services Contract". NASA HQ. 2008-12-22.
  50. ^ https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20140011156
  51. ^ Morring, Jr., Frank. "Space Station Resupply Contracts Awarded". Aviation Week, December 24, 2008.
  52. ^ Chris Bergin (January 15, 2009). "Planetspace officially protest NASA's CRS selection".
  53. ^ "B-401016; B-401016.2, PlanetSpace, Inc., April 22, 2009". GAO. April 22, 2009.

External links

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