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Amīr al-Mu'minin Usman
Caliph Usman's Empire at its greatest extent
Usman bin Affan
Born
Ta’if, Saudi Arabia
Died July 656, Medina, Saudi Arabia
Reign
17 July 656
Title(s) Thu Al-Nurayn, Amir al-Mu'minin
Buried
Jannat al-Baqi
Predecessor Umar
Successor Ali
edit
For other uses of the name, see Uthman (name).

‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān (عثمان بن عفان) (c.

Caliphs
, including Uthman.

Biography

Early life

Uthman was born in

Makkah, seven years after Muhammad. Uthman's father, Affan, died young when travelling abroad, but left much wealth for Uthman to inherit. Uthman followed the same profession as his father, and his business flourished, making him a millionaire, and one of the richest men among the Quraishi tribe[1]
.


Conversion to Islam

Uthman was an early convert to Islam, and is said to have spent a great deal of his wealth on charity. On return from a business trip from Syria in 611 A.D, Uthman came to know that

Ruqayyah bint Muhammad
.

Migration to Abyssinia

Uthman and his wife Ruqayya migrated to

Makkah, Uthman had to start his business afresh, but the contacts that he had already established in Abyssinia stood in good stead, and the business of Uthman prospered once again[3]
.

Migration to Medina

In 622 A.D Uthman and his wife Ruqayya migrated to

Makkah
. [4].

Life in Madinah

In 624 A.D, some Muslims from Medina departed to assist in the capture of a Quraish caravan. At this time, Uthman's wife Ruqayya suffered from malaria and then caught small pox. Uthman stayed at

Jews were taken captive, the question of the disposal of the slaves became a problem. Uthman solved the issue by purchasing all the slaves, and depositing their price in the Baitul Mal (Treasury). Any of these slaves who accepted Islam were set free by Uthman in the name of Allah
.

Treaty of Hudaibiyah

In March of

Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
.

Prophet Mohammad's last years

In 629 A.D, Uthman participated in the

Prophet Mohammad
passed away, and Uthman, like other Muslims, was in great grief.

Caliph Abu Bakr's era (632–634)

Uthman had a very close relationship with

Madinah, acting as Abu Bakr's adviser. On his death bed Abu Bakr dictated his will to Uthman, that his successor was to be Umar[6]
.

Caliph Umar's Era (634–644)

Uthman was the first person to offer his allegiance to

Christians, Umar decided to go to Jerusalem
to accept the surrender of the city. In the time of Umar, a severe famine broke out in the country, large caravan belonging to Uthman carrying large supplies of food grains served the poor well.

Election of Uthman

Main article:
The election of Uthman
File:Galexa20 Osman Hagia Sophia.jpg
Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Calligraphy of Uthman

Umar on his death bed accordingly constituted a committee of six people to choose the next

Caliph
from amongst themselves.
This committee was comprised of:

  • Ali ibn Abu Talib
  • Uthman ibn Affan
  • Abdur Rahman bin Awf
  • Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas
  • Zubayr ibn al-Awwam
  • Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah

Caliph, with the title, "Amir al-Mu'minin
".

Reign as a Caliph (644–656)

On assuming office, Uthman issued a number of directives to the officials all over the dominions ordering them to hold fast the laws made by his predecessor

Prophet Mohammad
as his personal deputies to various provinces to scrutinize the conduct of officials and the condition of the people. Uthman ruled for twelve years. The first six years were marked by internal peace and tranquility, but during the second half of his caliphate a rebellion arose. Uthman was the last caliph to enjoy unity in the Muslim world, as all later Caliphs would have opposition.

Reforms of Uthman's era

Economic reforms

Uthman was a shrewd business man and a successful trader from his youth, his shrewdness in economical matters contributed a lot to

agricultural lands in conquered territories[8]. Uthman withdrew this restriction, [8] in view that the trade could not flourish under these restrictions. Uthman also permitted people to draw loans from the public treasury [9]. Under Umar it had been laid down as a policy that the lands in conquered territories were not to be distributed among the combatants, but were to remain the property of the previous owners. The army felt dissatisfied at this decision, but Umar suppressed the opposition with a strong hand. Uthman followed the policy devised by Umar[10]. In the time of Uthman there were more conquests, and the revenues from land increased considerably[9]. In the time of Uthman the army once again raised the demand for the distribution of the lands in conquered territories among the fighting soldiers. Uthman turned down the demand; it favored the Dhimmis
(non-Muslims in Islamic state) a lot.

The coins were of persian origin, and had image of last persian emperor, Muslim added the sentence Bismillah to it.

The first Islamic

A.D
during Umayyad period.
Islamic empire enjoyed an economically prospered life during the reign of Caliph Uthman[11]
.

Public work

Under Uthman the people became economically more prosperous, and they invested their money in the construction of

seaport, and a new port was built there. Uthman also reformed the department of Police
in cities.

Administration

In his testament, Caliph Umar had instructed his successor not to make any change in the administrative set up for one year after his death. For obe year Uthman maintained the pattern of political administration as it stood under Umar, latter he made some amendments. Under Umar Egypt was divided into two provinces, Upper and Lower Egypt. Uthman made Egypt one province. Uthman created a new province for North Africa. Under Umar Syria was divided into two provinces. Uthman made Syria one province. During Uthman’s reign the empire was divided into twelve provinces. These were:

  1. Madinah
  2. Makkah
  3. Yemen
  4. Kufa
  5. Basra
  6. Jazira
  7. Fars
  8. Azerbaijan
  9. Khurasan
  10. Syria
  11. Egypt
  12. North Africa

The

shia Muslims did not see this as prudence; they saw it as nepotism
, and an attempt to rule like a king rather than as the first among equals.

Qur'an

Uthman is perhaps best known for forming the committee which compiled the text of the

Qur'an as it exists today. The reason was that various Muslim centers, like Kufa and Damascus
, had begun to develop their own traditions for reciting and writing down the Qur'an.


Uthman feared that the nascent Islamic empire would fall apart in religious controversy if everyone did not have access to the original text of Qur'an. Towards the end of his reign, the committee finished compiling the text, and Uthman had it copied and sent copies to each of the Muslim cities and garrison towns, commanding that variant versions of the Qur'an be destroyed, and only the original version used.

Zayd ibn Thabit was put in charge of the operation [13]

(Note that

Qur'an
.)

Military expansion

Byzantine attempt to re-capture Egypt

With the death of

Muslim forces laid the siege of Alexandria, it was conquered shortly after a coptic
opened the gates of city one night, in return of amnesty for him. After re-conquering
Amr ibn al-Aas
ordered to demolish the walls of the city to prevent future invasion of Byzantine forces. Amr was again disposed from his post due to his loose financial administration.

North Africa

After the withdrawal of the

Byzantines from Egypt, North Africa had declared its independence under its king Gregory. The dominions of Gregory extended from the borders of Egypt to Morocco
.
Abdullah ibn Saad feel that a regular campaign should be undertaken for the conquest of North Africa
. Uthman gave him permission after considering it in ‘’Majlis al shura’’, a force of 10,000 soldiers was sent as reinforcement. The
Barqa
.

First Muslim conquest of Spain

According to the general books of

Muslim Historians like Ibn Aksir
also have quoted the same narration. According to the account of
Abdullah ibn Saad, two of his Generals Abdullah ibn Nafiah ibn Husain, and Abdullah ibn Nafi' ibn Abdul Qais were commissioned to invade coastal areas of Spain by sea
. On this occasion Uthman is reported to have addressed a letter to the invading force. In the course of the letter, Uthman said:


No details of the campaigns in

Muslims entered into trade relations with the rest of Spain
and other parts of Europe.

Nubia (sudan)

A campaign was undertaken against

Muslim forces were pulled out of Nubia
with out any success.

Location of Dongola within Sudan

Ten years latter Uthman’s governor

slaves to Egypt every year, while Egypt agreed to supply grain
to Nubia according to demand.

Conquest of Islands of Cyprus, Rhodes and Sicily

During

Muslims lunched a naval campaign on sicily, they succedded in capturing a large part of sicily (Italy), soon Uthman was murdered and no further expansion was made, and Musims accordingly retreated from Sicily
.

Byzantine attempt to re-conquered Syria

After the death of

Syrian contingent and that of Kufa defeated the Byzantine army. It was last attempt by Byzantine to re-capture Levant
.

Re-Conquest of Armenia and Georgia

Muslim armies, the Armenians laid down arms, and accepted the usual terms of the payment of Jizya (tribute). Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan were made one province under the name Azerbaijan
, Ashat ibn Qais was the last governor of this province during Uthman's reign.

Re-conquest of Tartus (Asia Minor) region

The

Byzantine forces and a campaign was undertaken to regain the control of the region. The control of this region became strong after the conquest of Cyprus and Rhodes Islands
.


Re-conquest of Fars (Iran)

The province of

missionaries to various cities of the region to convert the people to Islam to avoid the revolt in future, as the causes of revolt was the sprit of nationalism in Persians. A large number of people embraced Islam
.


Re-conquest of Sistan (Iran and Afghanistan)

The

Baluchistan province of Pakistan
.
Muslim
commander Rabeah ibn Ziyad stuck a pole in the ground and ask Persians to lay a heap of gold and silver up to the top, once it was done Muslims gave peace to all citizens. Qarquqya, five miles from Zaliq was captured with out resistance. After that Muslim forces marched to
Busra
, as soon as he left the province of sistan broke into revolt once again and expelled the successor of Rabeah.

Rashidun Empire at its peak under third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman- 654 A.D

This time after obtaining the approval of Uthman,

slaves
. From Zaranj the Muslim force advanced into the interior of
Helmand all towns were subjugated. Most of the towns surrendered without offering resistance. Muslims reached the hilltown of Zor, in modern days central Afghanistan. It is said that after capturing the town, Abdulrehman ibn Sumra entered the temple in the town which had a huge idol with eyes of precious stone, he ordered to broke it saying to the priest that he did so to prove that this idol that you people worship is capable of doing nothing, and constructed a mosque on the site of temple. Thereafter Abdulrehman ibn Sumra marched north wards upto the Hindu Kush Mountains in north east and captured Ghazni after some resistance and Kabul
with any stiff resistance. After making these conquests Abdur Rahman returned to the provincial capital Zaranj and stayed there as Governor till the end of the caliphate of Uthman.

Re-conquest of Tabaristan (Iran)

Abdullah ibn Zubayr
.
Muslims
. The Muslim forces thereafter overran
Muslim rule. Having reconquerd the whole of Tabaristan Saeed ibn Al Aas planned to march to Khorasan, but when he came to know that Abdullah Ibn Aamir the Governor General of Basra was already in Khorasan, Saeed ibn Al Aas returned to Kufa
.

Re-conquest of Azerbaijan and Dagestan

general Asfandyar and his brother Bahram
. During the Caliphate of Uthman, Utba bin Farqad remained the governor of
Walid ibn Uqba to undertake the campaign to re-conquer Azerbaijan. Walid lunched a two pronged attack on Azerbaijan one from Armenia and the main army under his personal command from Kufa. No pitch battle was fought during the conquest and mostly towns surrendered and agreed to pay tribute of 0.8 million Dirham annually. Ashat ibn Qais was made governor of Azerbaijan
.

Re-conquest of Khurassan(Iran,Afghanistan,Turkmenistan)

A.D
.

Campaign in Transoxiana

After consolidating the Muslim authority in

Muslim
rule.

Re-conquest of Makran (Pakistan)

Indus and not to cross the river Indus. [14]
During the reign of Caliph Uthman
A.D [15]. Ubaidullah ibn Ma’mar was made first governor of Makran region later he was given governor ship of some other Persian region and was replaced by Umair ibn Usman ibn Saeed, and then Saeed ibn Qandir Qarshi was made Governor who remained governor until Caliph Uthman was murdered.[16]

Conquest of Baluchistan (Pakistan)

What is now

Persian Empire and north eastern region was part of the Persian province Sistan. The southern region was included in Makran
. In early
Baluchistan was conquered during the campaign in sistan
the same year. During Caliph Uthman’s reign in
A.D
, until Uthman was murdered.

Campaign in Sindh (Pakistan)

The

A.D
by sending seven armies from seven different routs to different parts of empire.
Indus
. In response of
Caliph Umar’s question about the Makran region
, the Messenger from Makran who bring the news of the victory told him:


Umar looked at the messenger and said: "Are you a messenger or a poet? He replied “Messenger”. Thereupon

Islamic army in Makran
said the following verses:


Referring to the

prostitutes use to give a part of there earning as charity
.

After the death of

Indus river.[23]

Agitation Against Uthman

Unlike his predecessor

Amr ibn al-Aas, who was dispossed from the governor ship of Egypt by Uthman, and Uthman's adopted son Muhammad ibn Abu Hudaifah
, to whom Uthman denied to appoint as governor of any province. The actual reasion of the seditionist movement is disputed among the
Prophet Mohammad, complaining against the tyrant rule of the governors of Uthman, more over letters were sent to the leader of public opinion of different provinces under lining the tyrant rule and mis-handling of power by the relatives of Uthman. This created an unrest in the empire and finally Uthman had to investigate the matter to know the authenticity of the rumors[26]
. The movement however exploited differences between the
Hashimite
clan.
Sunni Muslims consider these claims over the governors of Uthman who remarkably achived many success during there reign as governor, to be incorrect and nothing more then false claim and a tactic used by seditionists to overthrow the realm of Caliph Uthman by making him lose the control over the main provinces of
Busra
, where as a matter of loyality Uthman had appointed his own kinsmen as governors. On the other hand Shia suggest that these claims were correct and Uthman's kinsmen though achived greater success as governors but failed to lead the people according to the principles of Islam, giving refferences to various early narrations present in primary sources of Islamic history. Sunni reject these narrations, on the basis that there authenticity is disputed.


Uthman's emissaries to the provinces

The situation was becoming tense and it was required to investigate the very roots of the anti-government propaganda and its aims. Some time in around

Abdullah bin Sa'ad to be harsh against these persons for whom he had great regard. After the failure of emissary to Egypt, Uthman was watching further develop meets in Egypt
.

Uthman's further measures

In

Seditionists came in large delegations from various cities to present there argues before the gathering[28]
. On the occasion of
A.D
, Uthman addressed the people and gave a long explanation of the criticism over him and his administration and then said:

The seditionist realized that the people are in the view of the defense offered by Uthman were not in the mood to listen to them.

Madinah would be an incitement to a civil war, and he could not be a part to such a move[30]
.

Agitation in Madinah

After the

Amr ibn al-Aas
. When the crisis deepened in
Masjid-e-Nabawi and gave explanation of all the claims over him. General public was again satisfied with Uthman. He had hoped that after his speech in which he had explained his position, and offered full defense for his actions, the false propaganda against him would cease. The agitation against Uthman was not being led on the basis of any principles; it was prompted by ulterior motives to overthrow his Government[31]
.

Armed revolt against Uthman

As the politics of

coup d'etat and captured power in Egypt. On hearing of the revolt in Egypt, Abdullah hastened back to Egypt. Uthman was not in the position to give him any military assistance. Abdullah b Sa'ad accordingly failed to recapture power in Egypt[32]
In mid of
Abu-Musa al-Asha'ari failed to control the situation. In Basra the Governor Abdullah bin Aamir left for Hajj, and in his absence the affairs of the province fell into a state of confusion. Egypt was already the hot bed of seditionist, thus the three main provinces of Egypt, Kufa, and Basra came to be cut off from the caliphate
of Uthman, and became the center of revolt.


Rioters in Madinah

From

Madinah
chose to be neutral and help neither side.

Siege of Uthman

Main article:
Siege of Uthman


The situation in

Muslims
. When the rebels besieged the house of Uthman, the siege was not severe at the early stage
seditionist
, the supporters of Uthman took up cudgels on behalf of Uthman. Hot words were exchanged between the parties. Tempers flared up on both the sides, and that led to the pelting of stones at one another. One of the stones hit Uthman, and he fell unconscious. Uthman was carried to his house in a state of unconsciousness. The proceedings in the
Madinah
preferred to be neutral and watch developments. When the rebels felt that the people of [[Madinah] were not likely to offer active support to Uthman, they changed their strategy, and tightened the siege of the house of Uthman. Uthman was denied the freedom to move about. He was not allowed to go to the mosque. As days passed on the rebels felt bold, and intensified their pressure against Uthman
Caliph Abu Bakr, Ayesha made a similar attempt, and she was also prevailed upon by the rebels to go back[37]
. With the departure of the pilgrims from
Marwan ibn al-Hakam
and some other persons were wounded. When Uthman came to know of this action he said:

Death

Finding the gate of palace of

Caliph strongly guarded by his supporters, rebels climbed the back wall of the palace and entered inside, the guards on the gate were unaware of what’s going on inside. It is said that Uthman was reading Quran when rebels entered his room and struck blows at the head of Uthman.[39]
Naila, wife of Uthman, threw herself on the body of Uthman to protect him.

Toshkent
, has the blood spots of Uthman

She was pushed aside, and further blows were struck on Uthman till he was dead. The slaves of Uthman fell on the persons whose blows had killed Uthman and killed him. There was some fighting between the rebels and the

slaves of Uthman. There were casualties on both the sides, and the rebels looted the house[40]
. After the gruesome murder of Uthman, the rioters wanted to mutilate the dead body of Uthman, and were keen that the dead body be denied burial. When some of the rioters came forward to mutilate the dead body of Uthman, his two widows, Nailah and Ramlah bint Sheibah covered the dead body, and raised loud cries which deterred the rioters from pursuing their nefarious design. When the women raised loud lamentations over the dead body of Uthman, the rebels left the house, the supporters of Uthman at gate listened to it and entered the house but it was too late[41]. Thereafter the rioters maintained a presence round the house in order to prevent the dead body from being carried to the graveyard

The funeral

After the dead body of Uthman had been in the house for three days, Naila, Uthman's wife, approached some of Uthman's supporters to help in his burial, but only about a dozen people responded to her call. These included

Zaid ibn Thabit,'Huwatib bin Alfarah, Jabir bin Muta'am, Abu Jahm bin Hudaifa, Hakim bin Hazam and Niyar bin Mukarram[42]. The dead body was lifted at dusk, and because of the blockade no coffin could be procured. The dead body was not washed, as Islam states that martyrs' bodies are not washed before burial, so Uthman was carried to the graveyard in the clothes that he was wearing at the time of his assassination[43]. According to one account, permission was obtained from Ali to bury the dead body. According to another account, no permission was obtained, and the dead body was carried to the graveyard in secret. Yet a third account states that when the rioters came to know that the dead body was being carried to the graveyard they gathered to stone the funeral, but Ali forbade them to resort to any such act, and they withdrew. Some people say that Ali attended the funeral, but there is however overwhelming evidence to the effect that Ali did not[44]
. Naila followed the funeral with a lamp, but in order to maintain secrecy the lamp had to be extinguished. Naila was accompanied by some women including Ayesha, Uthman's daughter.

The burial

The dead body was carried to

Jannat al-Baqi
, the graveyard of Muslims.

Madinah-Saudi Arabia
.

It appears that some people gathered there, and they resisted the burial of Uthman in the graveyard of the Muslims. The supporters of Uthman insisted that the dead body would be buried in the graveyard of the Muslims[45]. Those who were opposed to such burial grew in strength, and fearing lest such opposition might take a more ominous turn, the dead body of Uthman was taken to the neighboring graveyard of the Jews Hush Kaukab, and buried there in a hurry. The funeral prayers were led by Jabir bin Muta'am, and the dead body was lowered in the grave without much of ceremony. After burial, Naila the widow of Uthman and Ayesha the daughter of Uthman wanted to speak, but they were advised to remain quiet as danger was apprehended from the rioters[46].

Family of Uthman

Main article: Family tree of Uthman

Uthman belonged to the Umayyad branch of the Quraish tribe, and was the

Urwa bint Kariz
. Urwa bore only two children from Affan: Uthman and his sister Amna. After the death of Affan, Urwa married Uqba bin Maheet, to whom she bore three sons and a daughter:

  • Walid bin Uqba
  • Khalid bin Uqba
  • Amr bin Uqba
  • Umm Kulthum bint Uqba

Before the Islam, Uthman had two wives namely,

  • Umm'Amr bint Jandab
  • Fatimah bint Al Walid

He had following childerns from them,
From Umm'Amr bint Jandab

  • Amr
  • Khalid
  • Aban
  • Umar
  • Maryam

From Fatimah bint al-Walid

  • Walid
  • Said
  • Umm Said.

Amr, was the eldest son of Uthman, and during the pre-Islamic period, Uthman was known by the surname of Abu'Amr.
After his conversion to He was married to

  • Ruqayyah bint Muhammad

Abd-Allah ibn Uthman, but he died early, because of him after Islam
he was called by the surname Abu'Abdullah.When she died, Uthman was married to her sister,

  • Prophet Muhammad
    . Umm Kulthum bore no child.


After the death of

Prophet Mohammad
's daughters, Uthman married to following women and had following childern from them.

From Fakhta bint Ghazwan

  • Abdullah bin Uthman al-asghar, he died in early age.

From Umm Al-Nabeen bint Einiyah

  • Abdulmalik bin Uthman, he too died in early age.

From Ramla biny Sheibah

  • Ayesha bint Uthman
  • Umm Aban bint Uthman
  • Umm Amr bint Uthman

From Nailah bint Fraizah

  • Maryum

Legacy

Uthman was the last caliph who could enjoy unity in the Muslim world. Uthman was well known for his generosity. He financed the project for the construction of the

Prophet Mohammad
. Uthman’s generosity continued after he became caliph. Uthman led a simple life even after becoming the
Islamic empire
, though it would have been easy for a successful businessman such as him to lead a luxurious life. The caliphs were paid for their services from bait al-mal the public
Muslims consider it his first step to wards ruling like a King.[48]
.


Sunni view of Uthman

According to the Sunni account of Uthman, he was married to two of Muhammads daughters at separate times, earning him the name Zun-Nurayn or the "Possessor of Two Lights.". In this he was supposed to outrank

Ali ibn Abu Talib
, who had married only one of Muhammad's daughters.

Sunni Muslims also consider Uthman as one of

the ten Sahaba (companions) for whom Muhammad had testified that they were destined for Paradise
, and one of the six with whom Muhammad was pleased when he died. He was a wealthy and very noble man. When he became khalifa, he used the same method Umar did.

Shia view of Uthman

According to the Shia view, Uthman is looked at negatively. The Shia do not believe that he was one of the Sahaba's destined to Paradise. Shia's dispute that Uthman's "Possessor of Two Lights" title was to annoy Ali ibn Abu Talib. They also believe that he did not outrank Ali because Ali was married to Muhammad's daughter

Hussien
. Muhammad had no sons of his own that lived to be toddlers, Hassan and Hussien are considered to be the "sons" of Muhammad.

Uthman was chosen by a council of six men appointed by the previous Caliph,Umar, whose members (except for Zubair and Ali) were related to Uthman, to succeed Umar as the next Caliph, much to Ali's chargin and protest (quotation needed). He was part of the Bani Ummayah family of which Abu Sufiyan,a villified figure amongst Muslims, was head of. His appointment of family relatives, such as Muawiya and Marwan, to high posts around the Muslim empire and their abuse of wealth and power irked the Ummah. Ali was from

Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib
. When Muhammad was orphaned and then lost his grandfather his uncle took him into his house.

To Shia Muslims Uthman's succession marked the beginning of the Ummayad dynasty, if not the first Ummayad ruler, which they believed to be unjust. Also they believe his succession was the continuation of a leadership usurption that had started from Abu Bakr to Umar to finally Uthman.


Non-Muslims

Bernard Lewis

20th century non-Muslim scholar
says of Uthman:


David Samuel Margoliouth

20th century non-Muslim scholar
says of Uthman:


E. A. Belyaev the

20th century non-Muslim scholar
says of Uthman:

References

  1. ^ Al-Mubarakphuri, Safi-ur-Rahman. Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar). Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996
  2. Caliph of Islam by Ahmad
    , Abdul Basit. (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 2000).
  3. ^ Hazrat Usman – by Rafi Ahmad Fidai, Publisher: Islamic Book Service Pages: 32
  4. ^ http://www.islam4theworld.com/Sahabah/talhah_bn_ubaydullah_R.htm
  5. ^ Al-Mubarakphuri, Safi-ur-Rahman. Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar). Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996
  6. ^ The Early Islamic Conquests, Fred McGraw Donner, Princeton 1981
  7. ^ The Early Islamic Conquests, Fred McGraw Donner, Princeton 1981
  8. Al-Fitna Al-Kubra
    (The Great Upheaval), published by Dar-ul-Ma'arif, Cairo, 1959, p. 47:)
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  11. ^ http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/coinsm1.htm
  12. ^ The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, Cambridge 1970
  13. Al-Islam.org [2]
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  15. ^ Tarikh al Tabri vol:3 pg: 360
  16. ^ Ibn Asir vol: 3 page no: 38
  17. ^ Ibn Aseer vol: 3 page no: 17
  18. ^ Fatu al Buldan page no:384
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  20. ^ Fatuh al buldan pg:386
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  22. ^ Tabri vol:4 pg:183
  23. ^ Tarikh al Khulfa vol: 1 pg:197
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  25. ^ Muhammad and the Conquests of Islam, Francesco Gabrieli, London 1968
  26. ISBN 0816190674
  27. ^ The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, Cambridge 1970
  28. ^ Sirat-i-Hazrat Usman-i-Ghani, by Mohammad Alias Aadil. Publishers: Mushtaq Ahmed Lahore.
  29. Caliph of Islam by Ahmad, Abdul Basit.(Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 2000
    ).
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  31. ^ Sirat-i-Hazrat Usman-i-Ghani, by Mohammad Alias Aadil. Publishers: Mushtaq Ahmed Lahore.
  32. ^ Abu Nu`aym, Hilya al-Awliya’ 1:92-100 #3; al-Dhahabi, Siyar A`lam al-Nubala’ 1/2: 566-614 #4.
  33. ^ http://sunnah.org/publication/khulafa_rashideen/caliph3.htm
  34. ^ Muhammad and the Conquests of Islam, Francesco Gabrieli, London 1968
  35. Caliph `Uthman, M. Hinds, in International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 1972
  36. Caliph `Uthman, M. Hinds, in International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 1972
  37. ^ http://www.geocities.com/islamimiracles3/Hazrat_Usman_bin_Affaan.htms
  38. Caliph `Uthman, M. Hinds, in International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 1972
  39. ^ The Many Faces of Faith: A Guide to World Religions and Christian Traditions By Richard R. Losch
  40. ^ The Martydom of Uthman ibn Affan, by Shaykh Zahir. ISBN : 58
  41. ^ http://atheism.about.com/library/glossary/islam/bldef_uthmanibnaffan.htm
  42. ^ http://www.islamicgoodsdirect.co.uk/product_info.php/products_id/1427
  43. ^ http://writerinislam.blogspot.com/2005/11/uthman-ibn-affan-man-with-two-lights.html
  44. ^ Makers of Arab History By Philip Khuri Hitti. Publishers St. Martin's Press 1968.Original from the University of Michigan.Digitized 21 Nov 2006
  45. ^ Textual Sources for the Study of Islam By Knappert, Jan, Andrew Rippin
  46. ^ The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged By Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer
  47. Caliph of Islam by Ahmad
    , Abdul Basit. (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 2000).
  48. ^ Al-Mubarakphuri, Safi-ur-Rahman. Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar). Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996
  49. The Arabs in History, p 59, Oxford University Press
    , 2002

Also:

External links

Views of various Islamic historians on Uthman:

Shi'a view of Uthman:

See also

Mohammad adil/sandbox6
Banu Quraish
 Died: July 17 656
Sunni Islam titles
Preceded by
Umar
 Rashidun Caliph
644 – 656 		Succeeded by
Ali
Persian royalty
Preceded by
Yazdegerd III
Ruler of Persia
651 – 656
 Merged into
Caliphate

Category:Arab people Category:Rashidun Category:Sahaba Category:580 births Category:656 deaths

ar:عثمان بن عفان bn:উসমান bs:Osman ibn Affan de:Uthman ibn Affan et:‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān es:Uthman ibn Affan fr:Uthman ben Affan id:Usman bin Affan it:Othmàn ibn Affàn he:עות'מאן ms:Uthman bin Affan nl:Oethman ibn Affan ja:ウスマーン・イブン＝アッファーン pl:Usman ibn Affan pt:Otman ru:Усман (халиф) sv:Uthman ibn Affan tr:Osman bin Affan ur:عثمان رضی اللہ عنہ wa:Otman (calife) zh:奧斯曼·伊本·阿凡

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