User:Mohammad adil/sandbox85255

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Muslim conquest of Egypt
Part of the
Byzantine-Arab Warslick
Date639–642
Location
Egypt, Lybia
Result Rashidun victory.
Territorial
changes		 Muslim annexed Egypt, Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan.
Belligerents
Byzantine Empire Rashidun Caliphate
Commanders and leaders

Emperor Heraclius

Theodorus

Cyrus of Alexandria

Caliph Umar

Amr ibn al-Aas

Zubair ibn al-Awam

Miqdad bin Al-Aswad

Ubaida bin As-Samit

Kharija bin Huzafa

At the commencement of the Muslim conquest of Egypt,

Khosrau II (616 to 629 AD
).
Ghassanid Kingdom and Armenia were already captured By the Muslims, this all left Byzantine Empire dangerously exposed and vulnerable for the invaders.[1]


Byzantine Egypt

It was also religiously alienated. The

Copts whom he erroneously considered Monophysites, expelling their patriarch (Oriental Orthodox are in fact miaphysites and not monophysites).[2]

Rise of Caliphate

The

Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on March 18, 633
, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina.

Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the

Byzantine
territory. Muslims had already captured the strategic trade routes and sea ports in Levant, Mesopotamia and Iraq.[3] Anatolia was at the mercy of Caliph Umar, who rather then expanding his domain deeper into Anatolia and Byzantine Empire, choose to consolidate his power in Levant, it was apparently against Caliph Umar's policy to expand empire through continues warfare, he stressed on consolidating power in conquered land first before moving a head, a fact due to which he ruled his empire with iron fist and the empire thus built is still in Muslim’s hands.[4] Moreover thanks to dismissal of Khalid from army and consecutive plague and famine that Byzantines were able to hold on Anatolia and its African territories.[5]

Expedition to Egypt

Deir el-Madinah
.

On Caliph Umar's visit to Syria to accept the

Amr ibn al-Aas, then military governor of Palestine
tried to pursue Caliph for the invasion of Egypt. Umar rejected the proposal as Levant was not firmly in Muslims hand and Byzantines were still in control of territories north of Syria. The year
Amr ibn al-Aas, who was governor of Palestine and then acting as a care-taking governor of Levant, once again waited on Umar.[7] Caliph was already aware of the Fact that southern borders were insecure and there was always a possibility of Roman incursion via Egypt at Palestine and southern Levant. Where as the northern borders with Romans were secured by invading Anatolia and Armenia moreover Romans were kept on bay by annual raids and plundering in Anatolia,[8] so Umar was explained and convinced by Amr to secure southern borders with Byzantines by Invading Egypt, an easy target due to religious unrest and Byzantines inability to concentrate sizeable troops after loosing bulk of its trained manpower at Yarmouk and northern Syria, more over Byzantines had already lost their resourceful province of Levant and their hub for man power, Armenia, so their was less chances of any relentless resistance and massive troop movements by Byzantines.[9]
In addition to this Amr is reported to have said:


Umar was not favorably inclined to the proposal of whole scale invasion of Egypt, and rather was more or less inclined to repeating the same strategy, as on northern borders, of raids and plundering to diminish the morale and resources of Byzantine thus preventing them from any possible incursion at Palestine. Amr however persisted. Ultimately Umar gave way decided to put the matter to

Madinah.[11]

In Madinah, the views and suggestions of the members of

Majlis al Shura were mixed; while few supported the invasion other simply viewed it as a dangerous decision of putting the Caliphate's army in the struggle of life and death.[12] Many were of the view that Amr have a thrust for "throne" and therefore want to conquer Egypt only to govern this rich land. Uthman, who would become the thrid Rashidun Caliph, was most prominent among them. Nevertheless, Majlis al Shura, finally gave decision in favor of the invasion of Egypt. Caliph Umar, though still reluctant to expand his empire, wrote a historic letter to Amr to march on Egypt.[13]

Muslim invasion of Egypt

Pyramids of Gizah.

In December 639 Amr left for Egypt with 4,000 soldiers only, Umar on second thought considered that it was idle to expect to conquer such a large country as Egypt with vast manpower and resources with a meager force of 4,000. Umar accordingly wrote a letter to Amr asking him to come back.[14] A post script was however added: If you receive this letter when you have already crossed into Egypt then you may proceed. Allah will help you and I will also send such reinforcement as may be needed. The letter was sent through a special messenger Uqba bin Amr. Uqba caught up Amr at Rafat a little short of the frontier. Guessing what might be in the letter, Amr ordered the army to quicken up its speed. Turning to Uqba, Amr said that he would receive the Caliph's letter from him when the army had halted after the day's journey. Uqba being not aware of the contents of the letter agreed and marched along with the army. The Muslim army halted for the night at Shajratein. This was a place well within the Egyptian territory.[15] Now the Caliph's letter was received and read. Amr consulted his companions as to the course of action to be adopted. The unanimous view was that as they had received the letter on the Egyptian soil, they had the permission to proceed. To the Caliph, Amr wrote:

When Umar received the reply, he decided to watch further developments and started concentrating fresh forces at Madinah, that would be dispatch to Egypt as reinforcement. From Shajratein, the Muslim army marched to

El Arish.[16] It was a small town where there was no garrison. No resistance was offered and the citizens offered allegiance on the usual terms. That was the Eid al-Adha day, a Muslim festival. The Muslims celebrated the Eid festival their. In the later part of December 639 the Muslim army reached Pelusium
. It was a fortified town manned by a Byzantine garrison. The Muslims besieged the town. The siege dragged on for two months. Towards the fall of February 640 an assault group led by a prominent field commander Useifa ibn Wala assaulted the fort and city was captured by the Muslims. Armanousa, the daughter of Cyrus who fiercely resisted the Muslims in Pelusium and fell hostage in their hands, be sent to her father in the Babylon Fortress.[17] After the fall of Pelusium the Muslims marched to
Siege of Damascus
]] and after overpowering the guards opened the gates for the main Muslim army to enter the city. The city was thus captured by the Muslims. Amr and Zubair returned to Babylon. The Byzantines now bolder then ever before, had began to sally forth across the ditch, though were little successful. Their have been a stalemate between Muslim and Byzantine forces at Babylon, to break this stalemate Muslim high command devised an ingenious strategy and inflicted heavy casualties on Byzantines by encircling them, though Byzantines were able to retreat back to the fort but were left too weak for any offensive. This situation forced Byzantines to enter in negotiations with Muslims. The Byzantine General Theodorus shifted his headquarter to Isle of Rauda. While Cyrus of Alexandria, popularly known as ‘’’Maquaqas’’’ in Muslim history entered in negotiations with Muslim, which failed to give any productive results. Emissaries were also exchanged between Byzantine commander Theodorus and Muslim commander Amr ibn Aas. Amr also went to see Theodorus in person. After all negotiations failed on the
21 December 640. However Theodorus and his army managed to slipped away to island of Rauda during night.[25]

Surrender of Thebaid (South eastern Egypt)

On the 22nd December, Cyrus of Alexandria of entered into a treaty with the Muslims.[26] By the treaty, Muslim suzerainty over the whole of Egypt, anf effectively on Thebaid, was recognized, and the Egyptians agreed to pay Jizya at the rate of 2 diners per male adult.[27] The treaty was subject to the approval of the emperor Heraclius, but Cyrus of Alexandria stipulated that even if the emperor repudiated the treaty, he and the Copts of whom he was the High Priest would honor the terms of the treaty, recognize the supremacy of the Muslims and pay them Jizya.[28] Cyrus of Alexandria submitted a report to Heraclius and asked for his approval to the terms of the treaty. He also offered reasons in justification of the acceptance of the terms of the treaty. Amr submitted a detailed report to Umar and asked for his further instructions. When Umar received the report of Amr bin Al-Aas about the conquest of Babylon and the treaty with Cyrus of Alexandria, he wrote back to say that he approved of the terms provided Heraclius agreed to submit to them.[29] He desired that as soon as the reactions of Heraclius were known, he should be informed so that further necessary instructions might be issued.[30] Heraclius's reaction to the report of Cyrus of Alexandria was violent. He removed Cyrus of Alexandria from the Viceroyship of Egypt, but he remained the Head of the Coptic Church. This was a matter in which the emperor could not interfere. Heraclius sent strict orders to the Commander-in-chief of the Byzantine forces in Egypt that the Muslims should be driven from the soil of Egypt. Cyrus of Alexandria waited on Amr and told him that Heraclius had repudiated the treaty of Babylon. Cyrus of Alexandria assured Amr that so far as the Copts were concerned the terms of the treaty would be followed. Amr reported these developments to Umar, and Umar desired that before the Byzantines could gather further strength the Muslims should strike at them and drive them from Alexandria. It is recorded that Cyrus of Alexandria asked for three favors from the Muslims, namely:

  1. Do not break your treaty with the Copts;
  2. If the Byzantines after this repudiation ask for peace, do not make peace with them, but treat them as captives and slaves; and
  3. When I am dead allow me to be buried in the Church of St. John at Alexandria.[31][32]

This position was to the advantage of the Muslims. The Copts were the real natives of the land of Egypt.

Byzantines, the sympathies of the Copts were now by and large with the Muslims. The Copts were not supposed to fight against the Byzantines on behalf of the Muslims but they undertook to help the Muslims in the promotion of war effort, help them in the provision of stores; build roads and bridges for them; and provide them moral support.[34]

Conquest of Alexandria and fall of Egypt

Ancient Roman theaters in Alexandria.

Byzantine commanders knew that after Babylon the next target of the Muslims will be Alexandria. They accordingly prepared for the siege to be laid on the city. Their strategy was to tie down Muslims at Alexandria and destroy their power through continues sallies and attacks from the fort, thus demoralizing them morally and physically. It would be more a war of patience then power.[35] In February 641, Amr set off with his army from Babylon and the destination was Alexandria. At each stage, Byzantines had left regiments to delay and if possible inflict heavy losses one the advancing Muslim troops. On the third day of their march from

Alexandria was captured by Muslims in September 641. Thousand of Byzantine soldiers were killed or taken captive while other managed to flight to Constantinople through ships that stood anchored in the port. Some wealthy traders also left.[41]
On behalf of the Egyptians, Cyrus of Alexandria sued for peace, and peace was allowed. In his report to the Caliph, Amr reported: After the conquest of Egypt Amr is reported to have written to Caliph Umar:

The permanent loss of the Egypt left the Byzantine Empire without an irreplaceable source of food and money. The loss of Egypt and Syria, followed later by the

conquest of the Exarchate of Africa also meant that the Mediterranean, long a "Roman lake", was now contested between two powers: the Muslim Caliphate and the Byzantines. In the event, the Byzantine Empire, although sorely tested, would be able to hold on to Anatolia, while the mighty walls of Constantinople would save it, during two great Arab sieges, from the fate of the Persian Empire.[42]

Expedition to Nubia

The land of

skirmishes
and haphazard engagements and in such type of warfare the Nubians excelled the Muslims. The Nubians were skilful archers and subjected the Muslims to a merciless barrage of arrows. The arrows were aimed at the eyes and in the encounter 250 Muslims lost their eyes. The Nubians were very fast in their movements.[44] The Muslim cavalry was known for its speed and mobility, but it was no match for the Nubian horse riders. The Nubians would strike hard against the Muslims, and then vanish before the Muslims could recover their balance and take counter action. The hit-and-run raids by the Nubians caused considerable damage to the Muslims. Uqba wrote to Amr bin Al-Aas of the state of affairs.[45] He said that the Nubians avoided pitched battle, and in the guerilla tactics that they followed the Muslims were the sufferers Uqba further came to know that Nubia was a very poor land, and there was nothing therein worth fighting for or to tempt by way of booty. Thereupon Amr bin Al-Aas asked Uqba to withdraw from Nubia. Uqba accordingly pulled out of Nubia with his forces.

Expedition to North Africa

After the failure of the campaign of

Sabrata a city forty miles from Tripoli. A feeble resistance was put up, and thereafter the city surrendered and agreed to pay Jizya
. From Tripoli Amr is reported to have written to the Caliph the details of the operations in the following words:

Umar however didn't approve of for the further conquest and ordered to consolidate position in Egypt, and issued strict orders that there should be no further campaigning. Amr bin Al-Aas accordingly abandoned

A.D.[46]

Egypt under Muslim rule

Rashidun Empire at its peak under third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman- 654
  Strongholds of Rashidun Caliphate

The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the

monothelism, a seventh century heresy, and some supposed him to have been secretly a convert to Islam. An attempt was made in the year 645 to regain Alexandria for the Byzantine Empire, but it was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by Constans II was repulsed. From that time no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country. There was a general misconception that the Muslims were assisted by some Copts, although a few of the Copts did find the Muslims more tolerant than the Byzantines.[49] In return for a tribute of money and food for the troops of occupation, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Others sided with the Byzantines, hoping that they would provide a defense against the Arab invaders.[50]

Fusta, the new Capital

With the fall of

dove had nested on top of the tent and fail eggs. Amr ordered that the tent should remain standing where it was. The army marched away but the tent remained standing in the plain of Babylon. In this unusual episode of the dove and its nest, Amr saw a sign from the Heaven. He decided "Where the dove laid its nest, let the people build their city". As Amr's tent was to be the focal point of the city, the city was called Fustat, which in Arabic means the tent. The first structure to be built was the mosque which later became famous as Mosque of Amr bin Al-Aas.[54] The city of Fustat was built east of Babylon. In due course Fustat extended to include the old town of Babylon. It grew to become a bustling city and commercial center of Egypt.[55]

Reforms of Caliph Umar

To consolidate his rule in Egypt, Umar imposed very low

Umayyad
rule unbearably high taxes were imposed on Egyptians. Upon Umar's permission, Amr ibn al Aas decided to build a
Arabia and Iraq. The project was presented to Caliph Umar, who approved it. A canal was dug and with in few months was opened for merchants. The canal was named Naher Amir ul Momeneen i.e The canal of Commander of believers named after the title of Caliph Umar.[56]
Amr proposed an other project, digging of canal that will join
Madinah.[58] This project however was completed in the form of what is now known as Suez Canal 1300 years later. The British Empire, like Caliph Umar resisted the construction of Suez Canal on the same basis that it will threaten its rule over India.[59]
Each year a large amount of Jizya according to Caliph's instructions use to be spent on building and repairing of canals and bridges.[60]

During Amr's lifetime the churches and people were not subjected to further assaults and were left in peace:

On the twentieth of Maskaram Theodore and all his troops and officers [the Byzantines] set out and proceeded to the island of Cyprus, and abandoned the city of Alexandria. And thereupon 'Amr the chief of the Moslem made his entry without effort into the city of Alexandria. And the inhabitants received him with respect; for they were in great tribulation and affliction... And 'Amr became stronger every day in every field of his activity. And he exacted the taxes which had been determined upon, but he took none of the property of the churches, and he committed no act of spoliation or plunder, and he preserved them throughout all his days. ... And he increased the taxes to the extent of twenty-two batr of gold till all the people hid themselves owing to the greatness of the tribulation, and could not find the wherewithal to pay.... And none could recount the mourning and lamentation which took place in that city: they even gave their children in exchange for the great sums which they had to pay monthly. Basically, they were delivered into the hands of their enemies. The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu Chapters CXX-CXXI

The Arab rulers remained in control of the country from

Mameluks
(however, the Ayyubids whom mamluki sultans replaced were Kurdish by their origins).

References

  1. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:18 page no:453
  2. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm
  3. ^ Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,
  4. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm
  5. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:18 page no:453
  6. ^ Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,
  7. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:18 page no:453
  8. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm
  9. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:18 page no:453
  10. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:18 page no:468
  11. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:19
  12. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:19
  13. ^ Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,
  14. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:19
  15. ^ Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,
  16. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:19
  17. ^ Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar, page 231
  18. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm
  19. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:19
  20. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion
  21. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm
  22. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion
  23. ^ Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,
  24. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion
  25. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:21
  26. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:22
  27. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion
  28. ^ "Umar (634-644)", The Islamic World to 1600 Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary. Last accessed 20 Oct 2006
  29. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion
  30. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:22
  31. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:23
  32. ^ Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,
  33. ^ "Umar (634-644)", The Islamic World to 1600 Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary. Last accessed 20 Oct 2006
  34. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion
  35. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:22
  36. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion
  37. ^ Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,
  38. ^ "Umar (634-644)", The Islamic World to 1600 Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary. Last accessed 20 Oct 2006
  39. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:22
  40. ^ Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,
  41. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion
  42. ^ Kaegli, Walter. Heraclius: Emperor of Byzantium.
  43. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion
  44. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm
  45. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:22
  46. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:24
  47. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm
  48. ISBN 978-1-889758-87-9
    .
  49. ^ http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm
  50. ^ http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm
  51. ^ Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,
  52. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion
  53. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:22
  54. ^ http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm
  55. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:22
  56. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:22
  57. ^ "Umar (634-644)", The Islamic World to 1600 Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary. Last accessed 20 Oct 2006
  58. ^ Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,
  59. ^ http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm
  60. Muhammad Husayn Haykal
    . chapter no:25

See also

External links

[[Category:7th-century conflicts]] [[Category:History of Egypt]] [[Category:Islam in Egypt]] [[Category:Islamic conquests]] [[Category:Early Middle Ages]] [[Category:Wars involving Arab Egypt]] [[ar:الفتح الإسلامي لمصر]] [[it:Conquista musulmana dell'Egitto]] [[ru:Арабское завоевание Египта]]

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