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Journa
The Diary of Christopher Columbus refers to the on-board journal (Diario de a bordo) kept by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage to the Americas in 1492-93. The original journal has long been lost, and all that remains of it is an abridged version heavily edited by Bartolomé de las Casas, compiled sometime between 1527 and 1563.
That Columbus kept a journal was long known, as it was used in the Historia written by his son, Ferdinand Columbus, but no copy of it was found until the manuscript of Las Casas's text was discovered and published in the 19th Century.
Background
Throughout the journey, Columbus kept an on-board journal, with daily entries, carefully noting the distance and direction sailed each day. Upon his arrival in Europe, Columbus dispatched a famous letter to the
In a royal letter (dated 5 September 1493), the Catholic monarchs sent one of the copies of the journal back to Christopher Columbus, with a note explaining the delay in copying on account of secrecy. They also requested that he send to them the nautical chart he had promised them (if such a chart was ever made, it has long been lost). Columbus's own copy of the journal was retained by his family. It might have been the copy used by his son, Ferdinand Columbus, who paraphrased and quoted large sections of the journal in the biography he wrote of his father (Historia del Almirante, written 1530s, first published in Italian in 1571, in Spanish only in 1892).
Upon the death of Ferdinand Columbus in 1539, his massive library was deposited with the Cathedral of Seville (the "
Columbus's original journal, or whatever manuscript copies he made for the Catholic monarchs, has long been lost.
A copy of Columbus's journal was evidently in the possession of his son, Ferdinand Columbus, who used extracts from the journal to compose a history of his father's career (Historia del Almirante). After Ferdinand Columbus's death in 1539, this journal (or another copy of it) must have fallen into the hands of Bartolomé de las Casas, who was in the process of composing his Historia de las Indias (begun 1527, finished c.1561). No other Spanish chroniclers of the 16th Century seemed to have used it in their histories, or even been aware of the journal's existence. (Ferdinand Columbus's book was only printed in an Italian translation in 1571, whereas Las Casas's Historia remained unpublished until 1875.)
Las Casas manuscript
All copies or mention of Columbus's journal disappeared for about 250 years. In 1790,
Este es el primer viaje y las derrotas y camino q̃ hizo el almirãte don xpõual Colon quãdo descubrio las yndias puesto sumariamẽte sin el prologo q̃ hizo a los reyes q̃ va a la letra
("This is the first voyage and the courses and way that the Admiral Don Christobal Colon took when he discovered the Indies, summarized except for the prologue that he composed for the king and queen, which is given in full")[2]
The Las Casas manuscript is currently held by the Biblioteca Nacional de España in Madrid (sig. vitrina 6, n.7). There are no other versions, although Navarrete claims he and Juan Bautista Muñoz transcribed Las Casas's manuscript with the assistance of another (later) copy of the same they found in the archives.
The Las Casas manuscript is not a direct transcription but rather an abstract or abridged version of Columbus's journal, drafted by Las Casas. It is evidently a working copy, heavily edited by the hand of Las Casas, with much crossed-out text, insertions and corrections and interlinear and marginal notes by Las Casas himself. Much of the marginalia is merely elucidatory, others are editorial opinions by Las Casas, some quite critical of Columbus. Scholars believe Las Casas did not himself see the original version of Columbus's journal, but only a copy by some unknown scribe (about whom Las Casas' own notes complain, and whose transcription errors have since provoked endless debates about bearings and distances sailed.) The tense frequently switches from third person paraphrasing by Las Casas to first person quotations ostensibly taken directly from Columbus's journal, which Las Casas frequently indicates by "Estas todas son palabras del Almirante" ("all these are the words of the Admiral").
The reliability of the the Las Casas manuscript, that is the extent to which it faithfully represents what Columbus wrote in the journal and the extent it was changed or added by Las Casas's hand, is uncertain and has been much debated. Although scholars generally agree the text was massaged, some believe Las Casas's touch has been innocuous and largely faithful, while others have been more suspicious.[3] Until another manuscript is found to compare against it, this is not likely to be resolved. The Las Casas manuscript "is not a fair copy, or even a copy of a copy, but a highly manipulated version of a copy of whatever Columbus may have written."[4]
The Las Casas manuscript found by Navarrete was used by Juan Bautista Muñoz to compose his Historia del Nuevo Mundo (1793), albeit he did not transcribe it directly. The world caught its first glimpse of it when Martín Fernández de Navarrete published a transcription of the Las Casas manuscript in the first volume of his 1825 Colección [5] Navarrete's transcription was the basis of many translations and editions of Columbus's journal in the 19th C. [6] The first English translation (by Samuel Kettell) of Navarrete's transcription appeared in 1827, and was re-translated by C.R. Markham (1893) and again by J.B. Thatcher (1903).
When Bartolomé de las Casas's original manuscript of the Historia de las Indias was published in 1875[7], the inadequacy of the Navarrete transcription was made evident (Navarrete contained many errors and ommissions, and suppressed most of Las Casas comments). A new transcription of the original Las Casas manuscript was undertaken anew by Cesare de Lollis and published in the first volume of the Raccolta Colombiana in 1892-94. De Lollis's set it out as a variorum edition, placing the manuscript transcription alongside related passages from Ferdinand Columbus's Historia del Almirante and Las Casas's Historia de las Indias. An English translation of the De Lollis transcription was first made by Cecil Jane (1930), a second by Samuel E. Morison (1963).
The first facsimile edition of the La Casas manuscript was put out by Carlos Sanz (1962). The most authoritative editions of the Columbus journal, the first to explicitly include all the cancellations and insertions by Las Casas, are probably Alvar (1976, in Spanish) and Dunn and Kelley (1989, in English).
In Journal
Columbus is the first captain (we know of) who kept a
By his own statements in his diary, Columbus uses a league of four "miles", with a mile measured at "1,000
Summary of journal
The opening prologue of the journal is addressed to the
(Columbus takes an aside to remind the monarchs of the titles and powers they had promised him in April 1492, with the Capitulations of Santa Fe, including that of "perpetual governor of all the islands and continental land which I might discover and acquire and which from now henceforward might be discovered and acquired in the Ocean Sea".)
Columbus goes on to say how he fitted out three vessels in
...and for this purpose, I decided to write everything I might do and see and which might take place on this voyage, very punctually from day to day, as will be seen henceforth. Also, Lords and Princes, besides describing each night what takes place during the day, and during the day, the sailings of the night, I propose to make a new chart for navigation, on which I will locate all the sea and the lands of the Ocean-Sea, in their proper places, under their winds; and further, to compose a book and show everything by means of drawing, by the latitude from the equator and by longitude from the west, and above all, it is fitting that I forget sleep, and study the navigation diligently, in order to thus fulfil these duties, which will be a great labour.
Las Casas's summary of the on-board journal proceeds from there, with entries by date:
- Aug 3 - Set out from "barra of Saltes" (Canary islands.
- Aug 4 - course SbW
- Aug 5 - sail more than 40 leagues (note: Columbus's league = 2.7 modern nautical miles(1.2 km))
- Aug 6 - sail 29 leagues, Pinta's helm ruptures.
- Aug 7 - sail 25 leagues, search for Lanzarote island of the Canaries.
- Aug 8 - a little disoriented, finally find island of Gran Canaria.
- Aug 9 - Pinta puts in for repairs at Canaria, while Columbus proceeds west to square sail. In the meantime, Columbus inquires from locals of La Gomera and El Hierro about legendary Atlantic islands to the west (prob. Antillia).
- Sep 6 - (Tuesday) Columbus goes to La Gomera to collect Pinta, sets sail from the Canary islands with his three ships. Lack of winds, however, doesn't get him very far. Hears from a local ship about the approach of three Portuguese vessels looking to intercept him.
- Sep 7 - still no wind
- Sep 8 - northeasterly trade winds pick up.
- Sep 11 - saw a large piece of a mast floating in the water.
- Sep 16 - come across "much weed" (Sargasso Sea).
- Sep 17 - begin to believe they see indications of land (birds, etc.)
- Sep 19 - First Toscanelliin 1474.)
- Sep 20 - begin detour, change bearing to west-by-north (WbN), then steepen it to west-northwest (WNW) (probably intending to find the ocean islands).
- Sep 22 - continue WNW, Columbus dispatches copy of a chart with ocean islands (Toscanelli's chart?) to Martín Alonso Pinzón (mentioned Sep 25)
- Sep 23 - Steepen bearing further, sail northwest (NW). Lack of wind apparently forces them to doldrums.
- Sep 25 - Columbus consults with Martin Alonso on missing ocean islands. Believing they see land, change course SW. Turns out to be clouds. Columbus begins to lie to sailors, routinely understating the distances sailed.
- Sep 27 - resume old course bearing steady west (W).
- Sep 29 - "much weed" again.
- Oct 1 - heavy rains
- Oct 3 - longest run, 47 leagues
- Oct 5 - flying fish land on ship decks.
- Oct 6 - In consultation with Martin Alonso, Columbus decides to forego search for Japanese islands, and aim directly for Asian mainland.
- Oct 7 - Mass of circling birds seen in distance. Change bearing to West-southwest (WSW). Niña thinks she sees land.
- Oct 8 - first ducks seen
- Oct 9 - ducks seen overhead at night
- Oct 11 - find green rush and a pole floating in the water. Sure signs of land nearby. A distant light (campfire?) is seen that night
- Oct 12 - (Friday at 2 AM) sailor and weapons.
- Oct 13 - Calculates the island lies on the same latitude as Castilianand serve as translators and guides. Following their directions, Columbus sets out for a large island five leagues away (bearing not given, presumably west)
- Oct 15 - Columbus reaches his second island, which he names "Santa Maria de la Concepcion" (local name not given, location either Rum Cay (route 1) or the northern end of Acklins island or Crooked island (route 2).
- Oct 16 - Columbus sets sail again towards west and hits a third and very large island which he names "Ferrandina" (local name not given, probably Long Island, whether reached via route 1 or 2). Finding an indian from San Salvador on a canoe along the way, Columbus gives him a lift to Ferrandina. Searches around the island for "Samoet", a place the indians had told them gold was found. Describes the colorful fish, but says there were no animals on land (no "sheep nor goats nor any other beast" except "parrots and lizards")
- Oct 17 - Describes the habitat of Ferrandina, "houses are all like tents", but villages are small (no "more than 12 to 15 houses"), and the natives have dogs. Natives assure him Samoet is elsewhere, a much bigger island.
- Oct 19 - Columbus splits up the fleet and instructs to follow the different trajectories given by the indian directions for Samoet. As they seem to be pointing southeast, so he sends the ships in various tracks in that rough direction (Niña SSE, Santa Maria SE and Pinta ESE) All three ships hit the same fourth island to the southeast, which he names "Isabela" (probably Fortune island and Crooked island)[10] The natives Columbus are carrying aboard say this is Samoet, and assure him there is a king inland who has a lot of gold. Begins to suspect this "king of Samoet" is probably quite poor himself.
Oct 20 - Spends day prodding Isabella for suitable place for anchorage and replenishing water supplies. Finds aloes.
- Oct 21 - Petty trade with local indians of Isabella. No sign of inland king. Hears of another island the indians call "Colba" with "many large ships and many skilled seaman", which COlumbus immediately concludes is a reference to Japan.
- Oct 23 -
- Oct 22 -
Editions of the journal
Portions of the journal were used in the histories of Ferdinand Columbus (1530s) and Bartolomé de las Casas (1550s). The first transcription of the Las Casas manuscript summary of the journal was by Navarrete (1825). It was translated into English by Kettell (1827), Markham (1893) and Thatcher (1903). The second transcription of Las Casas was by De Lollis (1892-94). It was translated into English by Jane (1930) and Morison (1963). The first facsimile edition was published in Sanz (1963). The most authoritative transcriptions, containing all emendations and insertions, was by Alvar (1976, in Spanish) and Dunn and Kelley (1983, in English).
- Columbus, Ferdinand (c.1539) Historia del almirante Don Cristobal Colon en la cual se da particular y verdadera relacion de su vida y de sus hechos, y del descubrimiento de las Indias Occidentales, llamadas Nuevo-mundo. Written 1530s, first published 1571 in Italian, 1892 in Spanish, 2 vols, Madrid: Minnesa. Journal portions, paraphrased, sometimes quoted, found in passim in volume 1, Chapters 14 to 41 (pp.73-182).
- Las Casas, Bartolomé de (c.1561) Historia de las Indias, 2 vols, 1875-76 ed., Madrid: Ginesta; The journal portions are in volume 1, Lib. I, Chapters 35 to 75,(p.266 ff)
- Navarrete, Martín Fernández de (1825) Colección de los viages y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los españoles desde fines del siglo XV: con varios documentos inéditos concernientes á la historia de la marina castellana y de los establecimientos españoles en Indias, Madrid: Impresa Real. The Las Casas manuscript is transcribed in volume 1, pp.1-166.
- (Kettell, Samuel) (1827) Personal Narrative of the First Voyage of Columbus to America, from a mansucript recently discovered in Spain. Boston: Wait. online - first English translation of Navarrete (1825).
- Markham, Clements Robert (1893) The Journal of Christopher Columbus (during his first voyage, 1492-93), London: Hakluyt. online - second English translation of Navarrete (1825).
- Thatcher, John Boyd (1903) Christopher Columbus: his life, his works, his remains, as revealed by original printed and manuscript records, 2 vols, New York: Putnam. - third English translation of Navarette (1825), supplemented with material from Las Casas's Historia (1875), vol. 1 pp. 513-86 (first part), p.604-70 (cont'd)
- De Lollis, Cesare (1892-94), editor, Scritti di Cristoforo Colombo, vol. 1, part 1, of Raccolta di Documenti e Studi pubblicati dalla Reale Commissione Colombiana pel quarto Centenario della scoperta dell'America. Rome: Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione. - Second transcription of Las Casas manuscript is found in Vol. 1, Pt.1.
- Jane, Cecil (1930) The Voyages of Christopher Columbus, being the journals of his first and third, and the letters Concering his first and last voyages, to which is added the account of his second voyages by Andres Bernaldez. London: Argonaut. - first English translation of De Lollis (1892-94) transcription.
- Sanz López, Carlos (1962) Diario de Colón; libro de la primera navegación y descubrimiento de las Indias. 2 vols, Madrid: Gráficas Yagües. - first facsimile edition.
- Morison, Samuel Eliot (1963) Journals and other documents on the life and voyages of Christopher Columbus. New York: Heritage Press. - second English translation of de Lollis.
- Alvar, Manuel (1976) Diario del descubrimento, 2 vols. Gran Canaria: Cabildo Insular. - first edition with cancellations and insertions noted.
- Dunn, Oliver and James E. Kelley Jr. (1989) The Diario of Christopher Columbus's First Voyage to America, 1942-1493, abstracted by Fray Bartolome de las Casas. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. - first English translation with cancellations and insertions.
References
- ^ Morison (1939: p.262)
- ^ Dunn and Kelley (1989: p.16-17)
- ^ For a review of some of the problems, see Morison (1939), Fuson (1983) and Zamora (1993).
- ^ Zamora (1993: p.72)
- ^ Navarrete, Colección (vol. 1, pp.1-166).
- ^ Dunn and Kelley (1989: ); Zamora (1993: p.96).
- ^ For the journal portions in Las Casas's Historia, see Las Casas (1875: vol. 1, p.266 ff)
- ^ For Columbus's own words, see diary entry for December 9 (Dunn and Kelley, 199?). On the modern measure of Columbus's mile, see Kelley (1983). An older hypothesis (e.g. Morison) suggests he used the Roman mile (1.48 km, 4860 feet, 0.80 nautical miles), making his league 3.2 modern nautical miles (5.93 km).
- ^ See Martínez (1994: 33-34) and Lyon (1992: p.93).
- ^ Dunn and Kelly (p.99)
Journal bibliography
- Las Casas, Bartolomé de (c.1561) Historia de las Indias, 1875-76 ed., Madrid: Ginesta vol. 1; Columbus's journal portion (Lib. I, Chapters 35 to 75) are translated into English by C.R. Markham, 1893, The Journal of Christopher Columbus (during his first voyage, 1492-93), London: Hakluyt. online
- Columbus, Ferdinand (c.1539) Historia del almirante Don Cristobal Colon en la cual se da particular y verdadera relacion de su vida y de sus hechos, y del descubrimiento de las Indias Occidentales, llamadas Nuevo-mundo. Written 1530s, first published 1571 in Venice, translated into Italian by Antonio de Ullóa, as Histoire del Signor D. Fernando Colombo nelle quali s'hà particolare, & vera relatione delle vita, e de'fatti dell' Ammiraglio. D. Christoforo Colombo, suo padre : e dello scoprimento, ch'egli fece dell'Indie Occidentali, dette Mondo Nuovo, hora possedute dal Serenissimo Rè Catolico (1676 reprint, Venice: Brignonci). The first Spanish edition was published in 1892, Madrid: Minnesa. 2 volumes, v.1, v.2. For a recent English translation, see Benjamin Keen (1960) The life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus by his son Ferdinand, London: Folio Society.
- De Lollis, Cesare (1892-94), editor, Scritti di Cristoforo Colombo, vol. 1, part 1, of Raccolta di Documenti e Studi pubblicati dalla Reale Commissione Colombiana pel quarto Centenario della scoperta dell'America. Rome: Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione.
- Lyon, Eugene (1992) "Navigation and Ships in the Age of Columbus", in J.R. McGovern, editor, The Age of Columbus. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, pp.79-98.
- Kelley, J. E. Jr. (1983) "In the Wake of Columbus on a Portolan Chart", Terrae Incognitae: Annals of the Society for the History of the Discoveries, vol. 15, pp. 77-111
- Martínez, Ricardo Cerezo (1994) La cartografía náutica española en los siglos XIV, XV y XVI. Madrid: CSIC
- Morison, Samuel E. (1939) "Texts and Translations of the Journal of columbus's First Voyage", The Hispanic American Historical Review, Vol. 19 (3), p.236-61
- Muñoz, Juan Bautista (1793) Historia del Nuevo Mundo, Madrid: Ibarra. v.1
- Navarrete, Martín Fernández de (1825-37) Colección de los viages y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los españoles desde fines del siglo XV: con varios documentos inéditos concernientes á la historia de la marina castellana y de los establecimientos españoles en Indias, 4 vols., Madrid: Imprensa Real.v.1 (1825), v.2, v.3 (1829)
- Peck, Douglas T. (post-1996) "The Navigation of Columbus and the Controversy over his landfall island in the New World", New World Explorers pdf
- Pickering, Keith (1997, rev. 2010) "The Columbus Landfall Homepage: Just where did Columbus first see the New World?" online
- Zamora, Margarita (1993) Reading Columbus. Berkeley: University of California Press online
OLD LETTER
Columbus's letter on the first voyage is the first known document announcing the results of the first voyage of Christopher Columbus that reached the Americas in 1492. The letter was ostensibly written by Columbus himself, on February 15, 1493, aboard the Niña, while still at sea, on the return leg of his voyage.[1] A post-script was added upon his arrival in Lisbon on May 4, 1493, and it was probably from there that Columbus dispatched two copies of his letter to the Spanish court.
The letter was instrumental in spreading the news throughout Europe about Columbus's voyage. Almost immediately after Columbus's arrival in Spain, printed versions of the letter began to appear. A Spanish version of the letter (addressed to
In his letter, Christopher Columbus claims to have discovered and taken possession of a series of islands on the edge of the
A slightly different version of Columbus's letter, in manuscript form, addressed to the Catholic monarchs of Spain, was found in 1985, part of the Libro Copiador collection, and has led to some revision of the history of the Columbus letter.[2]
Background
Christopher Columbus, a Genoese captain in the service of the Crown of Castile, set out on his the first voyage in August 1492 with the objective of reaching the East Indies by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. As is well known, instead of reaching Asia, Columbus stumbled upon the Caribbean islands of the Americas. Convinced nonetheless he had discovered the edges of Asia, Columbus set sail back to Spain on January 15, 1493, aboard the caravel, Niña. According the journal of his voyage, on February 14, Columbus was caught in a storm off the Azores islands. The resulting poor condition of his ship forced him to put in at Lisbon (Portugal) on March 4, 1493. Columbus finally arrived at Palos de la Frontera in Spain eleven days later, on March 15, 1493.[3]
During the return journey, while aboard the ship, Columbus wrote a letter reporting the results of his voyage and announcing his discovery of the "islands of the Indies". He sent that letter to the
Copies of Columbus's letter were somehow picked up by publishers, and printed editions of his letter began to appear throughout Europe within weeks of Columbus's return.[4] A Spanish version of the letter (based on the letter he sent to Luis de Santangel) was printed in Barcelona probably in late March or early April 1493. A Latin translation of the letter (addressed to Gabriel Sanchez) was printed in Rome about a month later. Within the first year of his arrival, eight more editions of the Latin version were printed in various European cities - two in Basel, three in Paris, another two in Rome and another in Antwerp. Already by June 1493, the letter had been translated by a poet into Italian verse and that went through multiple editions in a couple of years. A German translation appeared in 1497. The rapid dissemination of Columbus's letter was enabled by the printing press, a new invention that had established itself only recently.
The letter of Columbus (particularly the Latin edition) forged the initial public perception of the newly-discovered lands. Indeed, until the discovery of Historia de las Indias of Bartolomé de las Casas (written in the 16th C., but only published in the 19th C., containing what it purported to be an abridged version of Columbus's on-board journal), this letter was the only direct testimony by Columbus of his experiences on the first voyage of 1492.[5] It is estimated that, on the whole, between 1493 and 1500, some 3,000 copies of the Columbus letter were published, half of them in Italy, making it something of a best-seller for the times.[6] By contrast, Columbus's letter on his second voyage (1495) and on his fourth voyage (1505) had only one printing each, probably not exceeding 200 copies.
Content of the letter
The published Latin versions of the letter are almost all titled "Letter of Columbus, on the islands of India beyond the Ganges recently discovered". (the "Sea of Ganges" was an archaic term for the Bay of Bengal or the Indian Ocean, insinuating that Columbus's islands lay just on the eastern fringe of that ocean, roughly the islands of modern Indonesia). The earlier Spanish edition bears no title, nor does the manuscript copy of the letter to the Catholic monarchs (Libro Copiador).[7]
In the letter, Christopher Columbus does not describe the journey itself, saying only that he travelled thirty-three days and arrived at the islands of "the Indies" (las Indias), "all of which I took possession for our Highnesses, with proclaiming heralds and flying royal standards, and no one objecting". He describes the islands as being inhabited by "Indians" (Indios).
In the printed letters, Columbus relates how he bestowed new names on six of the islands. Four are in the modern
- Epistola Christofori Colom: cui (a)etas nostra multum debet: de Insulis Indi(a)e supra Gangem nuper inventis, ad quas perquirendas, octavo antea mense, auspicijs et (a)ere invictissimi Fernandi Hispaniarum Regis missus fuerat: ad Magnificum d(omi)n(u)m Raphaelem Sanxis: eiusdem serenissi Regis Thesaurarium missa: quam nobilis ac litteratus vir Aliander de Cosco ab Hispano ideomate in latinum convertit: tertio kal(enda)s Maii, M.cccc.xciii, Pontificatus Alexandri Sexti, Anno primo.
- ("Letter of Christopher Columbus, to whom our age is much indebted, about the islands of India beyond the Ganges recently discovered, and to explore which he had been sent eight months before under the auspices and at the expense of the most invincible Ferdinand, King of Spain; to the magnificent lord Raphael Sanxis, Treasurer to the Most Serene King, which the noble and literate notary Aliander de Cosco converted from the Spanish language into Latin, third calends of May, 1493, during the first year of the pontificate of Alexander VI.")
The corrections (Ferdinand & Isabella, Gabriel Sanchez, Lander de Cosco) were underaken in the Second and Third Roman editions later that same year, possibly as a result of complaints by Castilian emissaries in Rome who felt their Queen (and spellings) were given short-shrift by the Aragonese.[73]
All the Latin editions omit the endings found in the Spanish edition to Santangel, i.e. they omit the sign-off of being written on board ship in the Canaries, the postscript about the storm and days it took to return and the codicil about the letter being sent to the Escribano de Racion and the Catholic monarchs. Instead, it simply signs off "Lisbon, the day before the Ides of March" ("Ulisbone, pridie Idus Martii", that is, on May 14). Columbus's signature is given as "Christoforus Colom Oceanice classis Præfectus" ("Christopher Columbus, Prefect (or Admiral) of the Ocean fleet").[74] At the end, there is a verse epigram in honor of Ferdinand II written by Leonardus de Cobraria, Bishop of Monte Peloso.[75]
For a long time, historians believed the Latin edition was based on the copy of the letter sent by Columbus to the Catholic monarchs (as mentioned at the end of the Spanish letter to Santangel), and that Columbus's address to the treasurer Gabriel Sanchez was merely a courtly formality. According to this account, Columbus's original letter was read (in Spanish) before the monarchs then holding court in Barcelona, and then Ferdinand II of Aragon (or his treasurer Gabriel Sanchez) ordered it translated into Latin by the notary Leander de Cosco, who completed the translation by April 29, 1493 (as noted in the prologue). The manuscript was subsequently carried (or received) by the Neapolitan prelate Leonardus de Corbaria, Bishop of Monte Peloso, who took it to Rome and arranged for its printing there with Stephanus Plannck, c. May 1493. The Roman edition was subsequently carried into Central Europe and reprinted in Basel (twice, 1493 and 1494), Paris (three times in 1493) and Antwerp (once, 1493). A corrected Roman edition was printed by two different publishers in late 1493 - one by Stephen Plannck again, the other by Frank Silber (known as Argenteus).[76]
- 3. First Roman edition, De insulis indiae supra Gangem nuper inventis, undated and unnamed, but assumed printed by Stephanus Plannck in , four leaves (34 lines per page).
- 4. First Basel edition', De Insulis inventis. It is the only early edition missing the phrase "Indie supra Gangem" in the title, substituting instead "Insulis in mari Indico" ("islands in the Indian Sea"). Otherwise, it seems to be a reprint of the first Roman edition (hails only Ferdinand II, spells Raphael Sanxis, Aliander de Cosco). It is the first edition with illustrative woodcuts - eight of them.[78]. This edition is undated, without printer name nor location given, but it is often assumed to have been printed in Basel largely because a later edition (1494) printed in that city used the same woodcuts. Some have speculated the printer of this edition to have been Johannes Besicken[79] or Bergmann de Olpe[80]. It was published in octavo, ten leaves (27 lines per page).
- 5. First Paris edition, Epistola de insulis repertis de novo, directly from the first Roman edition (hails only Ferdinand II, Raphael Sanxis, Aliander de Cosco). Title page has woodcut of angel appearing unto shepherds. Undated and printer unnamed, but location given as "Impressa parisius in campo gaillardi" (Champ-Gaillard in Paris, France). The printer is unnamed, but a later reprint that same year identifies him as Guyot Marchant. In quarto, four leaves (39 lines per page).
- 6. Second Paris edition, Epistola de insulis de novo repertis probably by Guyot Marchant of Paris. Straight reprint of first Paris edition.
- 7. Third Paris edition, Epistola de insulis noviter repertis. Reprint of prior Paris edition, but this one has large printer's device on the back of the title page, identifying Guyot Marchant as the printer (ergo the deduction that the two prior editions were also by him).[81]
- 8. Antwerp edition, De insulis indi(a)e supra Gangem nuper inve(n)tis by Thierry Martins in Antwerp, 1493, directly from first Roman edition.
- 9. Second Roman edition, De insulis indi(a)e supra Gangem nuper inve(n)tis, undated and printer unnamed, assumed to be again by Stephen Plannck in Rome because of typographic similarity (identical to first edition). This is a corrected edition, presumably put out in late 1493; the salutation now refers to both Ferdinand and Isabella ("invictissimorum Fernandi et Helisabet Hispaniarum Regum"), addressee's name given as "Gabriel Sanchis" (correct first name, surname now in half-Catalan, half-Castilian spelling) and the translator as "Leander de Cosco" (rather than Aliander). It is published in quarto, four leaves (33 lines per page).[82]
- 10. Third Roman edition, De insulis indi(a)e supra Gangem nuper inve(n)tis by the Roman printer Franck Silber (who was known as "Eucharius Argenteus"). It is the first edition to be explicitly dated and inscribed with the printer's name: the colophon reads "Impressit Rome Eucharius Argenteus Anno dni M.cccc.xciij". It is also a corrected edition: it refers to addressee as "Gabriel Sanches" (Castilian name), the translator as "Leander de Cosco" and salutes both Ferdinand & Isabella. It is uncertain whether this Silber edition precedes or follows Plannck's second edition.[83] It is published in three unnumbered leaves, one blank (40 lines to the page).[84]
- 11. Second Basel edition,De insulis nuper in mar Indico repertis, dated and named, printed by Johann Bergmann in conquest of Granada.[85]
Italian verse and German translations
The Latin letter to Gabriel Sanchez, either the first or second Roman editions, was translated into Italian ottava rima by Giuliano Dati, a popular poet of the time, at the request of Giovanni Filippo dal Legname, secretary to Ferdinand II.[86] The first edition of the Italian verse edition was published in June 1493, and went quickly through an additional four editions, suggesting this was probably the most popular form of the Columbus letter known at least to the Italian public. A translation of the Latin letter into German prose was undertaken in 1497.
- 12. First Italian verse edition, La lettera delle isole novamente trovata, First edition of the Italian verse version by Giuliano Dati, published by Eucharius Silber in Rome, and explicitly dated 15 June, 1493.
- 13. Second Italian verse edition, La lettera dell'isole che ha trovate novamente il re dispagna, revised verse translation by Giuliano Dati, printed in Florence by Laurentius de Morganius and Johann Petri, dated 26 October, 1493. [87] It has a famous woodcut on its title page, which was later re-used for a 1505 edition of Amerigo Vespucci's Letter to Soderini.[88]
- 14. Third Italian verse edition, Questa e la hystoria delle inventioe delle diese isole Cannaria in Indiane, reprint of Dati verse edition. Undated and printing location unknown.
- 15. Fourth Italian verse edition, La lettera dell'isole che ha trovata novamente, reprint of Dati verse, by Morganius and Petri in Florence, dated 26 October, 1495.
- 16. Fifth Italian verse edition, Isole trovate novamente per el Re di Spagna, reprint of Dati verse, undated and unnamed (post-1495), lacks title woodcut.
- 17. German translation, Ein schön hübsch lesen von etlichen Inslen, translated into Strassburg, printed by Bartholomeus Kistler, dated 30 September 1497.
Italian translation fragments
There are three manuscripts of incomplete attempts by Italian authors to translate the narrative Spanish (or perhaps Latin) letter into Italian prose, probably within 1493. The three fragments were first published by Cesare de Lollis in the Raccolta Colombiana of 1894.[89]
- 18. First Italian fragment manuscript translation into Italian, held at the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan. The Italian translator's note claims this to be a copy of a letter written by Columbus "to certain counsellors" ("ad certi consieri") in Spain, and forwarded by "the treasurer" (i.e. Gabriel Sanchez) to his brother, "Juan Sanchez" (named in the text), a merchant in Florence.
- 19. Second Italian fragment manuscript fragment held at the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale in Florence. The Italian translator simply notes that it is a copy of the "letter that came from Spain" ("copia della letera venuta di Spagna"). There is a close connection between this Florentine fragment and the first Latin edition, suggesting one is derived from the other, or they were both using the same Spanish document.[90]
- 20. Third Italian fragment manuscript fragment held also by the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale in Florence. It contains no translator's notes about its origin or provenance.
It might be worth noting here that the first known
Letter to the Catholic monarchs (Libro Copiador)
The existence of this manuscript letter was unknown until it was discovered in 1985. The manuscript letter was found as part of a collection known as the Libro Copiador, a book containing manuscript copies of nine letters written by Columbus to the
Although scholars have tentatively embraced the Libro Copiador as probably authentic, it is still in the early stages of careful and critical scrutiny, and should be treated a bit cautiously.[95] The first letter in the copybook purports to be a copy of the original letter sent by Christopher Columbus to the Catholic Monarchs from Lisbon announcing the discovery. If authentic, it is prior to the Barcelona edition, indeed it precedes all known versions of the letter. [96] It contains significant differences from both the Spanish letter to Santangel and the Latin letter to Sanchez - notably more details about indian reports, including previously-unmentioned native names of islands (specifically: "Cuba", "Jamaica", "Boriquen" and "Caribo"), and a strange proposal to use the revenues from the Indies to launch a crusade to conquer Jerusalem. It omits some of the more economic-oriented details of the printed editions. If authentic, this letter practically solves the "Sanchez problem": it confirms that the Latin letter to Gabriel Sanchez is not a translation of the letter that the Spanish codicil said Columbus sent to the Monarchs, and strongly suggests that the Sanchez letter is just a Latin translation of the letter Columbus sent to Luis de Santangel.
See Also
Letters online
- The Spanish letter of Columbus to Luis de Sant' Angel, Escribano de Racion of the Kingdom of Aragon, dated 15 February 1493, 1893 edition, London: Quaritch.: fascimile and transcription of the Barcelona edition of 1493, with English translation by M.P. Kerney. For an html version of the same letter, see transcription, with English translation at King's College London. (accessed Feb. 12, 2012).
- Lettera in lingua spagnuola diretta da Cristoforo Colombo a Luis de Santangel (15 febbrajo 14 marzo 1493), riproddotta a fascimili, Gerolamo d'Adda, editor, 1866, Milan: Laengner, contains a fascimile of the Ambrosian edition of the Spanish letter to Santangel. Lettere autografe di Cristoforo Colombo nuovamente stampate. G.Daelli, editor, 1863 (with foreword by Cesare Correnti), Milan: Daelli, contains the first transcription (in Spanish) and an Italian translation of the Ambrosian edition.
- Historia de los Reyes Católicos D. Fernando y Da Isabel: crónica inédita del siglo XV, 1856 ed., Granada: Zamora, written at the end of the 15th C. by Andrés Bernáldez contains what seems like a paraphrasing of Columbus's letter to Santangel, Vol. 1, Ch. CXVIII, (pp.269-77).
- "Carta del Almirante Cristobal Colon, escrita al Escribano de Racion de los Señores Reyes Catolicos", in Colección de los viages y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los españoles desde fines del siglo XV, Martín Fernández de Navarrete, 1825, vol. 1, Madrid: p.167-75, is the first known modern publication of the Spanish letter to Santangel. Navarrete's transcription is based on a copy (now lost) originally copied by Tomas Gonzalez from an unknown edition (also lost) at the royal archives of Simancas in 1818.
- Primera Epístola del Almirante Don Cristóbal Colón dando cuenta de su gran descubrimiento á D. Gabriel Sánchez, tesorero de Aragón, edited by "Genaro H. de Volafan" (pseudonym of Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen), 1858, Valencia: Garin. Contains the first and only transcriptionof a Spanish manuscript of the letter found by Varnhagen at the Colegio Mayor de Cuencas (manuscript since lost). It is accompanied bilingually by the transcription of the Latin from the third Roman (Silber) edition of 1493.
- The Latin letter of Columbus: printed in 1493 and announcing the discovery of America, Bernard Quaritch, editor, 1893, London: contains fascimile of the second Roman edition (Plannck) of 1493; no transcription nor English translation provided.
- "A Letter addressed to the noble Lord Raphael Sanchez, &tc.", in R.H. Major, editor, 1848, Select Letters of Christopher Columbus, with other original documents relating to his four voyages to the New World. London: Hakluyt, (pp.1-17) contains bilingually a Latin transcription and English translation of the third Roman (Silber) edition.
- "La Lettera dellisole che ha trovato nuovamente il Re Dispagna", Italian verse translation by Giuliano Dati, from Florence edition (October 1493), transcribed (without translation) in R.H. Major (1848: pp.lxxiii-xc).
- "The Columbus Letter: Concerning the Islands Recently Discovered in the Indian Sea", at the University of Southern Maine: fascimile, Latin transcription and English translation, of the 1494 second Basel edition, with introduction and comments by Matthew H. Edney (1996, rev.2009), at the Osher Map Library, Smith Center for Cartographic Education, University of Southern Maine (accessed February 12, 2012).
- "Carta a los Reyes de 4 Marzo 1493", Spanish transcription and English translation, of the manuscript letter to the Catholic Monarchs, from the Libro Copiador, reproduced in Margarita Zamora (1993) Reading Columbus, Berkeley: University of California press. (online at UC Pres E-Books collection, accessed February 12, 2012).
Notes
- ^ a b Ife, Barry W. (1992) "Introduction to the Letters from America", King's College London. [1]. Accessed February 12, 2012.
- ^ Zamora (1993); Henige (1994)
- ^ See Columbus's journal (Markham ed., 1893: p.178, p.187-8, p.192)
- ^ a b c Matthey S. Edney (1996, rev.2009), "The Columbus Letter: The Diffusion of Columbus's Letter through Europe, 1493-1497" online at the University of Southern Maine (accessed Feb 12, 2012).
- ^ Henige (1994: p.141-42)
- ^ Clough (1994: p.299)
- ^ The following account relies on the available online fascimile and transcriptions listed at the bottom of the article. Quick reference: printed Spanish edition of the Letter to Santangel (Barcelona ed.; Ambrosian edition; Naverrete trans.); printed Latin edition letter to Sanchez:(1893: 2nd Roman (Plannck) ed.); 3rd Roman (Silber) ed.); Basel ed.); for the Libro Copiador letter to the Monarchs (transcription).
- ^ Compare p.xv of the fascimile of the Barcelona edition of the Spanish letter; and p.ix of the second Roman edition of the Latin letter.
- ^ In Columbus's journal entry of January 6, 1493 (Markham ed.,p.151), Columbus locates Caribo and Matinino east of Hispaniola, and even makes plans (January 16-17, p.162, 163) to find the islands and capture some of these Amazon warriors. Tales of distinct female and male islands ("Feminina" and "Masculia") abound in Classical tradition, and Marco Polo (Pt. 3, Ch. 33) locates two such islands in the Indian Ocean. Columbus may have sought this island of women out precisely to confirm his location (March and Passman, 1993: p.300-01). Whatever the European influence on Columbus's thinking, there does seem to have been an indigenous local legend about an island of only women. Ferdinand Columbus (p.283ff.), relates the legend of Matinino, drawing from Friar Ramon Pane, who set it down in 1497 from oral native sources. The Caribs did live in a sexually segregated society, where men and women lived in separate housing and are reported to have even spoken different languages.(Josephy, 1968: p.266)
- ^ Zamora (1993: Spanish ed. p.188-89, English trans. p.196-97)
- ^ In this passage in the manuscript, the island of children seems to be written as "Cardo", which Zamora (1993: p.188) leaves intact, suggesting Cardo is possibly a different island from Caribo; however Henige (1994) reads it as "Carbo" and a mere abbreviation of "Caribo", i.e. the Amazons retain the girls on their island, and send their sons to be raised on their husbands's island; thus the (male) Caribs are the sons of of the Amazons.
- ^ Columbus's journal writes it as Yamaye. (Markham ed, p.151)
- ^ Zamora (1993: p.228n.8)
- ^ Zamora (1993, p.13)
- ^ Jane (1930: p.50)
- ^ Navarrete (1825: vol. 2, p.22-23)
- ^ Zamora (1993:p.189)
- ^ F. Columbus (1892: v.1, p.162-63); B. de las Casas (1875: v.1, p.447); Henige (1994: p.143-44)
- ^ Jane (1930: p.36-37); Henige (1994: p.144)
- ^ Davidson (1997: p.197)
- ^ Columbus's journal (Markham ed., 1893: p.188-89)
- ^ Jane (1930:p.45)
- ^ Morison (2007: p.375); Letter of Medinaceli is reproduced as document Num. XIV in Navarrete (1825: vol. 2 p.20-21).
- ^ Davidson (1997: p.200)
- ^ Jane (1930:p.44)
- ^ The identification of Santangel is due to Navarrete (1825: vol. 1, p.167). Navarrete notes that the equivalent position in the Crown of Castile had a different title, Contador mayor, which was at that time held by a certain Alonso de Quintanilla.
- ^ a b c Adler, Joseph (1998) "Christopher Columbus's Voyage of Discovery: Jewish and New Schristian Elements", Midstream. As found online, accessed February 12, 2012
- ^ Luis Santangel, a Jewish converso, was "Ferdinand's financial secretary, who advanced to Isabella the 16,000 or 17,000 ducats to enable Columbus to discover the New World, was penanced July 17, 1491. He still continued in the royal service but he must have been condemned again for, after his death, about 1500, Ferdinand kindly made over his confiscated property to his children". He was the cousin of another Luis de Santangel "who had been knighted by Juan II for services in the war with Catalonia, was beheaded and burnt", H.C. Lea (1906: p.259)
- ^ Davidson (1997: p.200-01)
- ^ Jane (1930:p.42ff)
- ^ Jane (1930: p.45); Ramos (1986); Henige (1994: p.145-46)
- ^ The monarchs response is reproduced as document Num. XV in Navarrete (1825: vol. 2, p.22-23)
- ^ For a fascimile, see The Spanish letter of Columbus to Luis de Sant' Angel, Escribano de Racion of the Kingdom of Aragon, dated 15 February 1493, fascimile with M.P. Kerney trans., 1893, London: Quaritch. online
- ^ For the identification of Gabriel Sanchez as treasurer, see Navarrete (1829: v.3, p.76)
- ^ A fascimile of the second (corrected) Roman edition by Stephanus Plannck is reproduced in The Latin letter of Columbus: printed in 1493 and announcing the discovery of America. London: Quaritch. online. For an English translation of the also-corrected third Roman (Silber) edition, see R.H. Major, p.1.
- ^ Davenport (1917: p.56)
- ^ Such a motive is suggested by Jane (1930:p.47)
- ^ The Libro Copiador was first published in Romeu de Abreu (1989). See Zamora (1993) for a transcription and English translation. For other evaluations of this find, see Henige (1994), Davidson (1997) and Edney (1996 (2009 rev.))
- ^ De Lollis (1894); Jane (1930); more recently, see Ramos (1983, 1986).
- ^ Jane (1930: p.39-40); Anzovin (2000:p.109)
- ^ Jane (1930: p.38) suggests that, if Columbus sought to influence Ferdinand, then Juan de Coloma, Diego de Deza or even Cardinal Mendoza, would have been better suited recipients, rather than Gabriel Sanchez.
- ^ a b c d Uchamany (1993: p.110)
- ^ Howard Sachar (1994) "Destination: the New World", extract from Farewell Espana: The world of the Sephardim Remembered. New York: Knopf, as reprinted at MyJewishLearning.com
- ^ Uchamany, p.111.
- ^ First suggested by Jane (1930), Ramos Pérez (1983, 1986) is the most prominent recent proponent of this theory. See also Zamora (1993) and Henige (1994)
- ^ Ramos (1983, 1986)
- ^ For the treaty of 1479 and the bull of 1481, see Davenport (1917: p.33, p.49).
- ^ The Spanish monarchs reply to the Duke of Medina-Sidonia is document XVI dated May 2, 1493, given in Navarrete (1825: vol. 2, p.22-23)
- ^ For a transcript and English translation of the bull Inter Caetera of May 3, see Davenport (1917: p.56)
- ^ Davenport (1917) reproduces the bulls Eximiae devotionis of May 3 (July), (p.64) and the second Inter caetara of May 4 (p.71)
- ^ See letter dated August 4, 1493, document LX in Naverrete (1825: vol. 2, p.88)
- ^ Document LXXI in Navarrete (1825: vol.2 p.108)
- ^ See Davenport (1917) for Dudum siquidum (p.79)
- ^ Davenport (1917: p.84). This treaty was not ratified by the pope until 1506, in the bull Ea Quem by Pope Julius II, Alexander's successor. See Davenport (1917: p.107)
- ^ Winsor (1891:p.296)
- ^ Sanz López (1962:p.19)
- ^ Winsor (1891: p.13); Sanz Lopez (1962: p.18)
- ^ The Spanish letter of Columbus to Luis de Sant' Angel, Escribano de Racion of the Kingdom of Aragon, dated 15 February 1493, fascimile with M.P. Kerney trans., 1893, London: Quaritch. online
- ^ Harrisse, 1866: p.26
- ^ Sanz (1959: p.194)
- ^ Thatcher (1903: p.41)
- ^ The transcription of the Ambrosian letter was published by G. Daelli with a foreword by Cesare Correnti (1863: p.63-86), followed by an Italian translation. Daelli & Corrente erroneously presumed it was addressed to Raphael Sanxis. A fascimile was published by Gerolamo d'Adda (1866: p.xxxv-xliii), with the correct identification of being a letter to Santangel.
- ^ Thatcher (1903:p.45)
- ^ See the passages in Andres Bernaldez's Historia de los Reyes Católicos don Fernando y doña Isabel (1856 ed., vol. 1, Chapter CXVIII pp.269-77). For an English translation of the relevant passsages, see Harrisse (1865: p.89-115). This hypothesis was first suggested by Juan Bautista Muñoz (1793: p.viii) even before the first Spanish edition was found.
- ^ Navarrete (1825: v.1 p.167-75), It is followed by a transcription of one of the Latin editions(p.176-197).
- ^ See final note in Navarrete (v.1, p.176). Also Thatcher (1903: p.42)
- ^ "Genaro H. de Volafan" (F.A. de Varhagen), editor, 1858, Primera Epístola del Almirante Don Cristóbal Colón dando cuenta de su gran descubrimiento á D. Gabriel Sánchez, Tesorero de Aragón. Valencia: Garin. online (accompanied bilingually by the Latin translation of Silber)
- ^ Jane (1930:p.35n.)
- ^ De Lollis (1894:p.xxvi ff.; Jane (1930: p.34-35)
- ^ Thatcher (1903: p.41-42)
- ^ See Navarrete (1829: v.3, p.76)
- ^ As given in Sabin (1871: p.274)
- ^ For the corrected second Roman edition, see Quaritch (1893: p.ix)
- ^ Quaritch (1893: p.xv
- ^ The epigram by R.L. de Corbaria, Episcopi Montispalussi" reads (Quaritch, p.xvi):
- "Jam nulla Hispanis tellus addenda triumphis,
- Atque parum tantis viribus orbis erat:
- Nunc longe eois Regiis deprehensa sub undis
- Auctura est titulus, Betice magne, tuos.
- Unde repertori merito referenda Columbo
- Gratia: sed summo est major habenda Deo,
- Qui vicenda parat nova regna tibique sibique
- Teque simul fortem praestat et esse plum.
- "Jam nulla Hispanis tellus addenda triumphis,
- ^ A transcription of the prologues of the various known Latin editions can be found in H. Harrisse (1866: p.1, pp.16-), although he orders them differently. See also J. Sabin (1871: pp.274-278). For a more recent breakdown of the various known editions, see M.H. Edney (1996, rev.2009: online).
- ^ Harrisse (1866: p.10)
- Castile-Leon, 2. a vessel with the words "Oceanica classis", 3. landing on "Insula hyspana" with galley/canoe in foreground; 4. sort of map with islands named; 5. a reptition of "Oceanica classis" woodcut. 6. fort of La Navidad being constructed, finally on the tenth page (missing in some copies) 7. a full-length portrait of Ferdinand of Aragon, over the shields of Castile-Leon and Granada and (in recto) 8. coat of armas of Granada. (Harisse, 1866: p.16). Some of the woodcuts are reproduced in the 1494 edition.
- ^ Harrisse (1866: p.9, p.13).
- ^ Clough, 1994: p.301)
- ^ The Marchant colophon is reproduced in Harrisse (1866: p.22
- ^ A fascimile of the second Roman (Plannck) edition is reproduced in The Latin letter of Columbus: printed in 1493 and announcing the discovery of America. London: Quaritch. online.
- ^ Harrisse (1866: p.14) assumes Silber precedes Plannck's corrected edition.
- ^ For a Latin transcription (with English translation) of the third Roman (Silber) edition, see R.H. Major, p.1.
- ^ M. Edney (1996, 2009) "The Columbus Letter: Concerning the Islands Recently Discovered in the Indian Sea", at the University of Southern Maine, reproduces the fascimile, Latin transcription and English translation, of the 1494 second Basel edition.
- ^ On Giuliano Dati, see Harrisse (1866: p.28)
- ^ For a copy of the Dati verse, see R.H. Major, (1848: p.lxxiii)
- ^ For a fascimile of the 1505 edition of Vespucci's letter to Soderini published by Pacini, see B. Quaritch, First Four Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci (1893: p.11)
- ^ Cesare de Lollis (1894), editor, Scritti di Cristoforo Colombo vol. 1, part 1, of Raccolta Colombiana 1894. First fragment is on pp.lxviiii-lx, second is pp.lxx-lxxii, third is p.lxxiiii. See Jane (1930).
- ^ Jane (1930: p.35)
- ^ Charles Fontaine (1559) La Description des terres trouvées de nostre temps, avec le sommaire de plusieurs belles antiquitez, contenant une partie de l'excellence magnificence des richesses, triomphes et largesses des anciens, Lyon: Benoit Rigaud. See Harrisse (1866: p.55).
- ^ Edinburgh Review, December 1816, p.505-11. Apparently based on the Basel edition.
- ^ Arran Márquez (2006: p.44); Diaz-Trechuelo (2006: p.47)
- ^ Margarita Zamora (1993) Reading Columbus, Berkeley: University of California press. Available online at UC Press E-Books collection: transcription and English translation (accessed February 12, 2012).
- ^ Zamora (1993), Henige (1994)
- ^ Davidson (1997: p.197)
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