Barak Valley
Barak Valley | |
---|---|
Manipuri) | |
Area | |
• Total | 6,922 km2 (2,673 sq mi) |
Population (2011 census) | |
• Total | 3,624,599 |
• Density | 520/km2 (1,400/sq mi) |
Demonym | "Barakbashi" |
The Barak Valley is the southernmost
Etymology
The name "Barak" has derived from the Dimasa words 'Bra' and 'Kro'. Bra means bifurcation and Kro upper means portion/stream. The river Barak is bifurcated near Haritikar in the Karimganj district in to Surma River and Kushiyara River, respectively. The upstream of this bifurcated river was called "Brakro" by the Barman Kacharis of Cachar plains.[8][failed verification]
Barak valley excluding Karimganj was once part of the
Districts
Barak valley Division comprises three districts, namely Cachar, Karimganj, and Hailakandi.[3]
Code[11] | District | Headquarter | Population (2011)[12] | Area (km2) | Density (/km2) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CA | Cachar | Silchar | 1,736,319 | 3,786 | 460 |
HA | Hailakandi | Hailakandi | 659,296 | 1,327 | 497 |
KR | Karimganj | Karimganj | 1,228,686 | 1,809 | 680 |
Total | 3 | — | 3,624,301 | 6,922 | 1,637 |
History
This section needs additional citations for verification. (March 2022) |
The three districts of the Barak Valley have their own historical origins; nevertheless the region has been defined not from a natural growth from social, historical or cultural lives of the vernacular groups present in these regions, but they are the products of empire building, especially under the East India Company (EIC) and the British Raj.[13] The pre-colonial kingdoms were not cartographically defined; they were rather defined according to heartlands, and the defence of the margins were not important,[14] and it was communities living in different places owing loyalties to different royal lineages that implied territories.[15] The EIC interests led to drastically differently defined cartographic territories—it was in the interest of the two contending parties, the Tripura and the Kachari kingdoms, to define a boundary east to west across the Dalasuri flowing south to north and settle whether Hailakandi was control of the Tripuri or the Kachari polity; whereas the EIC was more interested in defining a north–south border along the Dalasuri so it could be defended.[16]
Pre-colonial formations
Cachar
The
In the 16th century, the
The Kachari kings at Khaspur appointed Brahmins as rajpandits and rajgurus and provided land grants to Muslims from Sylhet for cultivation.[21] Some people from Manipur and the Ahom kingdom too moved to the Cachar plains following disturbances in those lands.[22] In 1835 Pemberton reported that the population of the Cachar plains was around 50,000 dominated by the Dimasa people, followed by Muslim immigrants from Sylhet and their descendants; a third group was Bengali and Assamese immigrants and their descendants and Naga, Kuki and Manipuris forming the smallest groups.[23][24]
Hailakandi
Hailakandi, claimed by both the Tripura and Kachari kingdoms, was a market town on the banks of the Dalasuri river which connected the resource-rich southern hills with the markets in the north along the Barak river.[25] In 1821-22 when Thomas Fischer surveyed the area,[26] he found that Hailakandi was controlled by the Kacharis, though it was surrounded by villages of the Kuki Tanghum community that owed allegiance to the Tripura kingdom.[27] In this region a past Tripura king received a princess from Manipur.[28] It was uncertain which of the three kingdoms the communities paid their tributes to and it effectively formed a boundary zone, a concept that differed significantly from the idea of clearly defined borders between kingdoms.[29]
Karimganj
Karimganj was with the colonial Sylhet district—despite a referendum result it was split from Sylhet, which was included with Pakistan during partition of India in 1947, and attached to India.[30] East India Company had pushed into the region east of Sylhet town slowly after it won the right to collect land revenue under the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765.[31]
The Barak river today splits into the northern Surma and the southern Kushiara between the towns of Badarpur in the east and Karimganj in the west. Inscriptions suggest that in the 10th century the region around Surma and Kushiara formed frontier settlements called Srihatta and Khanda Kamarupa established by Kamarupa kings in the 7th century.[32] Till 1787, when Brahmaputra changed its course to meet the Meghna a hundred miles farther south, the land between Netrokona in the west and Sylhet in the east was inundated for half of each year forming haors which made the higher plains of the upper Surma-Kushiara basin not as easily accessible from the west as it was from the Cachar plains in the east.[33]
Colonial boundaries
EIC acquired Sarkar Sylhet, primarily the frontier town, bounded by regions that were not in their control—Mughal holdouts moved freely in the lowlands controlled by the highland rulers out of Company reach; Khasi chiefs held most of the land north of the Surma; the land north and east of Sylhet town belonged to the
According to
Inclusion of Karimganj
In 1947, when a
Assam's Surma Valley (now partly in Bangladesh) had Muslim-majority population. On the eve of partition, hectic activities intensified by the Muslim League as well Congress with the former having an edge. A referendum had been proposed for Sylhet District. Abdul Matlib Mazumdar along with Basanta Kumar Das (then Home Minister of Assam) travelled throughout the valley organising the Congress and addressing meetings educating the masses about the outcome of partition on the basis of religion.[50] On 20 February 1947 Moulvi Mazumdar inaugurated a convention – Assam Nationalist Muslim's Convention at Silchar. Thereafter another big meeting was held at Silchar on 8 June 1947.[51] Both the meetings, which were attended by a large section of Muslims paid dividend. He was also among the few who were instrumental in retaining the Barak Valley region of Assam, especially Karimganj with India.[52][53] Mazumdar was the leader of the delegation that pleaded before the Radcliffe Commission that ensured that a part of Sylhet (now in Bangladesh) join with India despite being Muslim-majority (present Karimganj district).[54][55] In return of that, Moulvibazar the only Hindu-majority district of Sylhet Division was given to East Pakistan during partition.[56]
Demographics
According to the
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1851 | 85,522 | — |
1901 | 630,302 | +637.0% |
1911 | 713,566 | +13.2% |
1921 | 751,560 | +5.3% |
1931 | 803,694 | +6.9% |
1941 | 895,140 | +11.4% |
1951 | 1,115,865 | +24.7% |
1961 | 1,378,476 | +23.5% |
1971 | 1,713,318 | +24.3% |
1981 | – | — |
1991 | 2,491,496 | — |
2001 | 2,995,769 | +20.2% |
2011 | 3,624,599 | +21.0% |
2021 | 4,386,089 | +21.0% |
Source: [60][61][59][18] |
Languages
As per (2011) language census report,
According to census 2011, the major languages of
Religion
Religion | Population |
---|---|
Hindus () | 1,812,141 |
Muslims () | 1,744,958 |
Christians () | 58,105 |
Others | 9,395 |
Total | 3,624,599 |
Hinduism is mainly practised by
Population
The below are population by district tehsils in 2011:[57][74]
- Cachar district total – 1,736,617
- Sonai circle – 324,315
- Katigora circle – 291,875
- Udharbond circle – 124,090
- Lakhipur circle – 291,872
- Silchar circle – 704,465
- Hailakandi district total – 659,296
- Algapur circle – 121,379
- Hailakandi circle – 166,897
- Katlichara circle – 168,077
- Lala circle – 202,943
- Karimganj district total – 1,228,686
- Badarpur circle – 164,703
- Karimganj circle – 278,300
- Nilambazar circle – 242,451
- Patharkandi circle – 261,368
- Ramkrishna Nagar circle – 281,864
Trends
Year (census) | Hindu population (%) | Muslim population (%) |
---|---|---|
1951 | 676,660 (60.63%) | 429,496 (38.48%) |
1961 | 821,600 (59.60%) | 539,457 (39.13%) |
1971 | 1,005,995 (58.71%) | 683,387 (39.88%) |
1991 | 1,381,803 (55.46%) | 1,071,872 (43.02%) |
2001 | 1,580,660 (52.76%) | 1,362,114 (45.46%) |
2011 | 1,812,141 (50.00%) | 1,744,958 (48.1%) |
Hindu and Muslim population by district tehsils
District Cachar/Tehsils | Hindu population (%) | Muslim population (%) |
---|---|---|
Sonai circle | 133,507 (41.17%) | 184,588 (56.92%) |
Katigora circle | 131,352 (45.0%) | 156,290 (53.55%) |
Udharbond circle | 87,423 (70.45%) | 32,320 (26.05%) |
Lakhipur circle | 178,163 (61.04%) | 95,476 (32.71%) |
Silchar circle | 508,540 (72.19%) | 186,142 (26.42%) |
Hindus are majority in three tehsils of Cachar district namely Silchar, Lakhipur and Udharbond, while Muslims are majority in Katigora and Sonai circle according to 2011 census.
District Hailakandi/Tehsils | Hindu population (%) | Muslim population (%) |
---|---|---|
Algapur circle | 38,501 (31.72%) | 82,126 (67.66%) |
Hailakandi circle | 47,198 (28.28%) | 118,626 (71.08%) |
Katlichara circle | 79,019 (47.01%) | 84,044 (50%) |
Lala circle | 86,476 (42.61%) | 112,857 (55.61%) |
Hindus are significant in two tehsils of Hailakandi namely Katlichara and Lala, while Muslims are majority in all the three tehsils, but in Katlichara Muslims form a plurality according to 2011 census.
District Karimganj/Tehsils | Hindu population (%) | Muslim population (%) |
---|---|---|
Badarpur circle | 56,800 (34.49%) | 106,909 (64.91%) |
Karimganj circle | 117,877 (42.36%) | 159,068 (57.16%) |
Nilambazar circle | 58,767 (24.24%) | 182,567 (75.3%) |
Patharkandi circle | 129,502 (49.55%) | 124,768 (47.74%) |
Ramkrishna Nagar circle | 159,016 (56.42%) | 119,177 (42.28%) |
Hindus are majority in two tehsils of Karimganj namely Patharkandi and Ramkrishna Nagar, while Muslims are majority in Nilambazar, Badarpur and Karimganj circle according to 2011 census.
Demography of district headquarters
District/(Headquarters) | Total population | Hindu population (%) | Muslim population (%) | Others |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cachar district/(Silchar) | 172,830 | 154,381 (86.31%) | 21,759 (12.17%) | 3,310 |
Hailakandi district/(Hailakandi) | 33,637 | 22,624 (67.26%) | 10,686 (31.77%) | 327 |
Karimganj district/(Karimganj) | 56,854 | 49,218 (86.57%) | 6,856 (12.06%) | 780 |
Statehood demand
Most Bengali organisations of Barak Region have demanded a separate state for the people of Barak within the Bengali majority areas of Assam, particularly Bengali majority Barak valley, comprising the three districts
The indigenous
Festivals
Kali Puja is one of the most celebrated festivals in the valley after Durga Puja. Every year around 2000 Puja pandals are built in the region to mark the beginning of this festival and to seek the blessings of the goddess Kali for general happiness, health, wealth and peace through prayers[120][121][122]
Busu Dima is an annual
Baidima is a tradition festival of Indigenous Dimasa Cachari tribe of
Charak puja (Pohela Boishakh) the Bengali new year, is one of the most important and major festivals of the valley celebrated by the ethnic Bengalis, irrespective of their religious affiliation and social status. This festival marks the beginning of Bengali new year and is being celebrated 15 April every year.[127]
Eid
Social issues
Bengali Language Movement in Barak Valley
Over 80 per cent of Assam's Barak Valley are
Language controversy
On 18 October 2021, a state government hoarding which was written in Assamese language has been found smeared with black ink in Barak valley's administrative capital Silchar's Petrol Pump area. It was found that two Bengali organisations namely: Barak Democratic Yuba Front and All Bengali Students Youth Organisation have been involved in that activity and have accused that the government of Assam has been trying to impose their Assamese language on us (referring to Bengali-majority Barak Valley) through Assamese hoarding as a starting and have said that "We strictly stands against it (i.e imposition)".
Immigration of Bengali refugees in Cachar Valley
In 1947 during
In March 2020,
Barak-Mizoram dispute
Over time, the two states started having different perceptions about where the demarcation should be. While Mizoram wants it to be along an Inner Line Permit notified in 1875 to protect indigenous tribals from outside influence, which Mizos feel is part of their historical homeland, Barak valley region of Assam wants it to be demarcated according to district boundaries drawn up much later.[160][161] Conflicting territorial claims have persisted for long between Assam's Barak and Mizoram, which share a 164.6 km inter-state border. There were several clashes between the local people of the Mizoram and Barak regarding land disputes in the border areas on regular basis.[162][163] The root of the dispute is a 1,318 km2 ( 509 square miles) area of hills and forests that Mizoram claims as its own. This is on the basis of an 1875 British law. But Assam insists this area is part of theirs as its "constitutional boundary".[163] On 17 November 2022, Mizoram Home Minister have apologised for the clashes that have occurred in Barak-Mizoram border in which six police personnel and one civilian were killed in Lailapur.[164]
Communal Tensions
Barak valley has witnessed many major communal riots since 1960's to the most recent 2021 Hailakandi riots.[165][166][167]
Lists of riots involving communalism in Barak valley region:
Karimganj riot (1968)
In the 1968 Karimganj riots, a cow belonging to a Muslim wandered into a Hindu house. When a Hindu boy tried to chase the cow, some Muslims beat him up. Soon after that clashes erupted between the two communities. The ensuing riot claimed 82 lives.[165]
Hailakandi riot (1990)
In October 1990, a wounded cow was found near a common land, which led to clashes between Hindus and Muslims. Police records reveal that the Hindus of Hailakandi had demanded that parcel of land to construct a Kali temple. In fact, Sangh Parivar had earlier organised pujas to ritually purify bricks for shilayas at Ayodhya on the common land. The appearance of an injured cow hurt their sentiments and led to a riot resulting in many casualties.[165]
Silchar riot (2013)
In 2013, rumours of beef being found in a temple in Silchar sparked Hindu Muslim clashes in which at least 30 people were injured.[168]
Silchar riot (2015)
In 2015, there was tension yet again when the head of a slaughtered cow was found in a temple in Silchar. On the same year, allegations of "love jihad" – a term used by Hindu groups to allege a conspiracy by Muslim men to marry women from other religions solely to convert them to Islam – sparked violent clashes in the city area.[168]
Silchar riot (2017)
On 7 June 2017, Clashes broke out between two communities in the Silchar city of Assam's Cachar district on Tuesday evening. The incident took place in the Janigunj area of Silchar. According to police 11 civilians and eight police officials were injured in large scale stone pelting. However, there were no casualties in the incident.[166]
Hailakandi riot (2019)
Local reports said that the tension started when motorbikes owned by Muslim devotees were vandalised while they were praying inside a mosque. The motorbike owners lodged a first information report and demanded that the police take action against the accused and said that they will offer prayers on the road if action was not taken. Mohneesh Mishra, Hailakandi's police chief, told Scroll.in that the clashes began when a group of Muslim men assembled on a public road in the town and said they will offer prayers on the street. "The Hindu community tried to stop them and that led to an argument and soon after that it turned into riot," said Mishra, while adding that heavy security had been deployed in the area. At least 14 people were injured out of which 3 were police Constables and also 1 was killed in a communal clash in Hailakandi district in Assam which have occurred on 10 July 2019.[169][167]
Hailakandi riot (2021)
Tension began at Hailakandi's Serispore Tea Garden area after an e-rickshaw driver who happened to be a Muslim and his passengers (who were all Hindus) entered into an argument. After this confrontation, people from two separate groups gathered at the site and started attacking each other. Soon after that, a curfew was imposed. As per as A.H Laskar a police of Hailakandi police station, both parties were throwing stones at each other.[170]
Economy
Tea is the important economic activity and Barak Valley have also its proportional share of tea garden in comparison to Brahmaputra valley to sustains its economy from time to time. There are plenty of oil and natural gas under the surface of Barak valley as well to run the economy as a separate state. Various oil refineries are also set up in various locations of Barak valley to meet the required economic demand.[171] Jute is an important crop grown in this region.[172] The per capita income of Cachar is Rs. 19,551, for Hailakandi it stands at Rs. 19,055 and for Karimganj it is Rs. 20,093 respectively. Barak Region as a whole have a per capita income of Rs. 58,699 which is lower than in most of Assam.[173][174][175]
Poverty
Barak valley region is the poorest part of Assam in terms of Gross Domestic Product and Human Development Index rank. More than half of the region's population lives in absolute poverty. According to a survey, 51% of the population of Hailakandi district, 42.4% of the population of Cachar district and 46% of the population of Karimganj district are multi-dimensionally poor and don't have proper access to safe drinking water, food, electricity, housing and shelter etc.[176]
Forest cover
There are around 104 forest Villages in Barak Valley.[177] Among the three districts in Barak Valley, Cachar have an area of 3,786 km2, out of which 2,222.34 km2 area is covered with forest, Hailakandi district have a total area of 1,327 km2, out of which 774.34 km2 is covered with forest, Karimganj district have a total area of 1,809 km2, out of which 851.43 km2 area is covered with forest.[178]
List of districts in Barak valley
There are three districts in the Barak Valley.
- Karimganj having an area of 1,809 km2 and is the second largest district of the valley.[179]
- Hailakandi having an area of 1,327 km2 is third largest district of the valley.[180]
- Cachar having an area of 3,786 km2. It is the largest district of the valley.[181]
The total area of the valley is 6,922 km2.[179][180][181]
Historically,
Wildlife
The Asian elephant has already vanished from most of the valley.[184][185][186] Barail is the only wildlife sanctuary of the Barak valley region. It was initiated by noted naturalist Dr Anwaruddin Choudhury, who originally hailed from this region in the early 1980s.[187] This sanctuary was ultimately notified in 2004. There are thirteen reserve forests in the valley comprising six in Karimganj, five in Cachar, and two are in Hailakandi.[188][189] The Patharia hills reserve forest of Karimganj is the habitat of many mammals and was recommended to upgrade as 'Patharia hills wildlife sanctuary'.[190] The southern part was also recommended as 'Dhaleswari' wildlife sanctuary.[191]
Weather
Barak Valley has a temperature that varies 35° to 40 °C and also has a humid environment with rainfall varying from 100 to 200 cm. It is one of the hottest and humid region of entire North East.[192]
Politics
Bengali-dominated Barak valley have 15 Assembly seats. As per as vote share, Maximum of the people in the valley have supported BJP in
Constituencies
Barak Valley has two Lok Sabha seats.
- Karimganj (Lok Sabha constituency)
- Silchar (Lok Sabha constituency)
Barak Valley has fifteen Assam Legislative Assembly seats.
- Badarpur
- Algapur
- Hailakandi
- Katlicherra
- Karimganj South
- Karimganj North
- Ratabari
- Patharkandi
- Katigorah
- Dholai
- Udharbond
- Sonai
- Silchar
- Barkhola
- Lakhipur
Districts tehsils
District | Tehsil | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cachar district | |||||||
Hailakandi district | |||||||
Karimganj district |
Notable people
- Abdul Matlib Mazumdar, freedom fighter, cabinet minister in last ministry during British period and then after independence, in the first and subsequent ministries. Assam's first Agriculture, Veterinary, & Local self-government minister
- Moinul Hoque Choudhury, ex-Minister of Industries during Indira Gandhi regime, established All India Radio, National Institute of Technology, Silchar, Hindustan Paper Mill at Panchgram and Sugar Mill at Anipur
- Karnendu Bhattacharjee, ex-MP of Rajya Sabha, Indian National Congress
- Debojit Saha, singer and television host
- AIUDF
- Santosh Mohan Dev, former member of Lok Sabha, Indian National Congress, former Minister of Heavy Industry and Public Enterprises in the Union Cabinet
- Aminul Haque Laskar, Deputy Speaker of the Assam Legislative Assembly, Bharatiya Janata Party
- B. B. Bhattacharya, former Vice-Chancellor, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
- Anwaruddin Choudhury, first Divisional Commissioner of Barak Valley when it was created as a separate division in 2015–16. Popularly known as the "Birdman of Assam" he authored 28 books on birds and mammals. He is also the first from Barak Valley to obtain a D.Sc. degree.
- All India Trinamool Congress
- Kalika Prasad Bhattacharya, singer
- Rajdeep Roy, Member of Lok Sabha, Silchar
- Kripanath Mallah, Member of Lok Sabha, Karimganj
- Gautam Roy, Ex Minister, Assam
- Pritam Das, Cricketer
Notable educational institutions
- National Institutes of Technology, Silchar
- Barak Valley Engineering College (BVEC)
- Silchar Polythenic
- Assam University
- Gurucharan College
- Karimganj College
- Nabinchandra College
See also
- Folk deities of Sylhet
- Sylhet division
- Kachari Kingdom
- Brahmaputra Valley
Notes
- ^ Languages constituting less than 1% and/or substantially lower as compared to the total population are not included
References
- ^ Ghildiyal, Subodh (18 April 2019). "Why Priyanka campaigned in Silchar". The Times of India. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
- ^ (Tunga 1995, p. 1)
- ^ a b "Districts". assam.gov.in/about-us/396.
- ^ "Districts | Assam State Portal". assam.gov.in.
- ^ Bureau, Pratidin (23 March 2023). "List of all the Districts and Regional Divisions in Assam". Pratidin Time.
- ^ "History of Cachar | Cachar District | Government Of Assam, India". Cachar.gov.in. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
- ^ "History of Cachar | Cachar District | Government Of Assam, India". cachar.gov.in.
- ^ Ministry of Tribal Affairs https://repository.tribal.gov.in › ...PDF tribes of assam
- ^ "History of Cachar". Cachar District, Government Of Assam, India. Retrieved 20 November 2023.
- ^ "An early history of Assam by Sir Edward Gait (1963 [1933]) suggests that Cachar district might have got its name from a Sanskrit word meaning a 'broadening region' or from the main tribe of the region. He further argues that the Kacharis themselves could not have got their name from Cachar district, as they are known by the same name in many parts of Assam far from Cachar, and were thus known long before they settled there: the earliest known record being 'in a letter of appointment by Raja Kirti Chandra, dated 1658 Sak (1736 CE), in which "Kacharir Niyam", or the practices of the Kacharis, is referred to' (Gait 1963: 299–300)." (Bhattacharya 2018)
- ^ ISO 3166
- ^ "District Census 2011".
- ^ (Cederlöf 2014:48)
- ^ (Cederlöf 2014:47)
- ^ "The geopolitical boundaries of the kingdoms were not cartographically defined. Heartlands and places of particular significance were more important than defending borderlines at margins... Communities were decidedly loyal to a particular royal lineage and such loyalties had territorial implications."s (Cederlöf 2014:47)
- ^ "One such conflict was played out between the kingdoms of Tripura and Cachar, and focussed on the market town of Hailakandi...At Hailakandi, for example, ...observed a north-south division across Dalasuri, and debated whether Hailakandi should end up one side or the other, the Company argued for an east-west division along the river. The Dalasuri connected people. It was a center of livelihoods, trade, and social life. But to the British, a river constituted an easily defended outer border, separating people by a line cutting through landscape by which order could be upheld." (Cederlöf 2014:36–37)
- ^ (Bhattacharjee 1994:71)
- ^ ISBN 978-1-64678-800-2.
- ^ "Kingdoms of South Asia - Indian Kingdoms of Assam".
- ^ "An important change in the Dimasa political tradition occurred in the mideighteenth century, probably 1745, 1750 or 1755, when the centre of administration was moved from Maibong to Khaspur in the plains of Cachar. From this time onwards, the Dimasa rulers used the title 'the Lord of Heḍamba' in their own records." (Shin 2020:66)
- ^ "Some brahmins were appointed as Rajgurus or Rajpandits in the court. Hariścandranārāyaṇa also made land grants to the Muslims of Sylhet to encourage their agricultural activities in the Cachar plains." (Shin 2020:67)
- ^ "Besides the Bengalis, inhabitants of Manipur and Ahom came in Cachar in the wake of the Burmese disturbance in 1765 and the Moamaria uprising in 1767–70." (Shin 2020:67)
- ^ "According to Pemberton's report in 1835, the population of the Cachar plains was estimated at about 50,000, among which the Dimasa-Kacharis were the most dominant section; the second were Bengali Muslim immigrants and their descendants; the third were Bengali and Assamese Hindu immigrants and their descendants; and the last bulk of the population consists of Manipuris, Nagas and Kookis." (Shin 2020:67)
- ^ "The population of Lower and Upper Cachar was estimated at around 60,000. In Upper Cachar Cacharis, Kookees, Aooloongs, and Nagas were recorded. The inhabitants of Lower Cachar was predominantly Cacharis and Bengali Muslims (descendants of immigrants). There were also Kookees, Manipuris, and Nagas there." (Cederlöf 2014:116f)
- ^ "One such conflict was played out between the kingdoms of Tripura and Cachar, and focused on the market town of Hailakandi. The town was located on the banks of the Dalasuri, which connected the resource-rich southern hills and the markets along the Barak." (Cederlöf 2014:36)
- ^ (Cederlöf 2014:21)
- ^ "Fisher observed that Cachar now possessed the place, but that it was surrounded by villages of the Kuki Tanghum community in the lower hills, who were loyal to the king of Tripura." (Cederlöf 2014:36)
- ^ "On (the occasion of a wedding of the former raja of Tripura to the daughter of the raja of Manipur) the two rajas and their entourage met halfway between their kingdoms." (Cederlöf 2014:36)
- ^ "(It) was impossible to establish whether they paid tribute to Manipur, Trupura, or Cachar. The notion of a boundary zone, characterized by tributes and negotiations, rather than a boundary line did not occur to (Fisher)." (Cederlöf 2014:37)
- ^ "In 1947, Ratabari, Patherkandi, Badarpur and half of Karimganj thana left the former Karimganj sub-division of Sylhet to join the Cachar District of Assam." (Ludden 2003:5088f)
- ^ (Cederlöf 2014:71)
- ^ "In the tenth century, inscriptions suggest that land around the Kushiara was most densely populated by frontier communities formed under Kamarupa kings who granted large tracts to Brahmans and their supporters in areas called Srihatta and Khanda Kamarupa." (Ludden 2003:3)
- ^ "Until the Brahmaputra shifted its course a hundred miles south, in 1787, it crossed Mymensingh and emptied into the Meghna at Bhairav Bazar, from which point a vast freshwater sea covered the land for half of every year, all across the haors spanning Netrokona in the west and Sylhet the east. This inland sea deterred settlers from the west. It made the higher plains in the upper Surma-Kushiara basin much more easily accessible from the Barak valley, in the east, where the earliest Hindu settlers originated." (Ludden 2003:3–4)
- ^ "Before Mughal times, we do not find evidence that clearly indicates any state regime exercised authority all across the area that would comprise the Mughal's Sarkar Sylhet." (Ludden 2003:2)
- ^ "In 1612, Mughal troops sailed to Sylhet, conquered local Afghans, and established Mubariz Khan as Faujdar." (Ludden 2003:1)
- ^ "When Shah Jalal conquered rajas around Sylhet town and established Islam, in 1303, and when Ibn Batuta traveled to meet Shah Jalal, in 1346, the region comprised diverse localities held by Khasias, Garos, Hindus, Muslims, and others.10 Thus, in Shah Jalal's time, a definite 'Sylhet region' does not appear to have existed." (Ludden 2003:2)
- ^ (Ludden 2003:1–2)
- ^ "Also in ancient times, Gangetic agrarian societies began to expand eastward, toward Sylhet. The easternmost Mauryan site is a fort settlement on a river route at Mahasthan Garh. In Gupta, Pala, and Sena times, Gangetic cultural sites became more numerous in Bengal. Eastward Gangetic expansion accelerated in the second millennium, with Afghan and Turk conquests, but most dramatically under the Mughals. In each expansionist wave, Gangetic colonization forced local Munda language speakers, including Khasias, to fight, submit, assimilate, and move." (Ludden 2003:4)
- ^ "Local units of property rights, called taluks, were the domains of small landlords, called talukdars. Sylhet District had only one very big zamindar (whom we meet shortly) and none of the big jotedar tenants or merchant magnates who controlled so much of rural Bengal.134 Sylhet was, like Chittagong, a region of small landholders." (Ludden 2003:23)
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- ^ "Meanwhile, unconquered Mughal opponents still roamed the lowlands, where highland rulers exercised substantial influence. Khasias held most land north of the Surma and ruled all the mountains above. Jaintia Khasia rajas held land north and east of Sylhet town. Cachar rajas held the lower Barak Valley. Tripura rajas ruled southern uplands and adjacent plains. North of the Surma, northwest of Sylhet town, ethnic communities of frontier settlers, called Bengali Khasias, had arisen from alliances between mountain Khasias and lowland Bengalis; and they had once respected Mughals and Nawabs, inside the jaghir of Omaid Reza, yet remained independent of Company Raj, as we will see." (Ludden 2003:6)
- ^ "The Mughal diwani grant of 1765 vested revenue-farming rights and judicial duties in a European mercantile trading corporation...A mercantile corporation was thus about to take a major step from making profit by following commodity flows to making economic use of a far more immovable source of income, that of landed revenue." (Cederlöf 2014:1–2)
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External links
- Languages of the Barak Valley collection (Saihriem, Thadou, Hrangkhol, Ranglong, Sakachep) in the Computational Resource for South Asian Languages (CoRSAL) archive
- Annotated Texts of the Languages of the Barak Valley: Thadou, Saihriem, Hrangkhol, Ranglong by Dr. Pauthang Haokip
Sources
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