Blackberry
Blackberry | |
---|---|
Ripe, ripening, and unripe Allegheny blackberries (Rubus allegheniensis) | |
Blackberry flower, species aggregate
| |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Rosales |
Family: | Rosaceae |
Genus: | Rubus |
Subgenus: | Rubus subg. Rubus |
Species | |
And hundreds more microspecies (the subgenus also includes the dewberries) | |
Synonyms | |
Rubus subg. Eubatus |
The blackberry is an edible fruit produced by many
Blackberry fruit production is abundant with annual volumes of 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg) per 1 acre (0.40 ha) possible, making this plant commercially attractive.[2]
Rubus armeniacus ("Himalayan" blackberry) is considered a noxious weed and invasive species in many regions of the Pacific Northwest of Canada and the United States, where it grows out of control in urban and suburban parks and woodlands.[3][4]
Description
What distinguishes the blackberry from its raspberry relatives is whether or not the torus (receptacle or stem) "picks with" (i.e., stays with) the fruit. When picking a blackberry fruit, the torus stays with the fruit. With a raspberry, the torus remains on the plant, leaving a hollow core in the raspberry fruit.[5]
-
Halved blackberry with present torus
-
Halved raspberry with absent torus, for contrast
-
Wild blackberries picked in May in Texas
-
Blackberries from Srem, Serbia
The term
The usually black fruit is not a
Plants
Blackberries are perennial plants bearing biennial stems (called canes) from their roots.[8]
In its first year, a new stem, the primocane, reaches a full length of about 3–6 metres (9.8–19.7 feet) trailing on the ground and bearing large
Unmanaged plants tend to aggregate in a dense tangle of stems and branches,[4] which can be controlled in gardens or farms using trellises.[2][8] Blackberry shrubs can tolerate poor soils, spreading readily in wasteland, ditches, and roadsides.[4][7][10]
The
Genetics
The loci controlling the primocane fruiting was mapped in the F Locus, on LG7, whereas thorns/thornlessness was mapped on LG4.[12] Better understanding of the genetics is useful for genetic screening of cross-breds, and for genetic engineering purposes.[citation needed]
Ecology
Blackberry leaves are food for certain
Blackberries grow wild throughout most of Europe. They are an important element in the ecology of many countries, and harvesting the berries is a common pastime. However, their vigorous growth and tendency to grow unchecked if not managed correctly means that the plants are also considered a weed, sending down
Blackberry fruits are red when unripe, leading to an old expression that "blackberries are red when they're green".[14][15]
Cultivation
Worldwide, Mexico is the leading producer of blackberries, with nearly the entire crop being produced for export into the off-season fresh markets in North America and Europe.[16] Until 2018, the Mexican market was almost entirely based on the cultivar 'Tupy' (often spelled 'Tupi', but the EMBRAPA program in Brazil from which it was released prefers the 'Tupy' spelling), but Tupy fell out of favor in some Mexican growing regions.[17] In the US, Oregon is the leading commercial blackberry producer, producing 19,300,000 kilograms (42,600,000 pounds) on 2,500 hectares (6,300 acres) in 2017.[18][19]
Numerous cultivars have been selected for commercial and amateur cultivation in Europe and the United States.[2][9][20] Since the many species form hybrids easily, there are numerous cultivars with more than one species in their ancestry.[9]
History
Modern
Hybrids
'Marion' (marketed as "marionberry") is an important cultivar that was selected from seedlings from a cross between 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' (commonly called "Olallieberry") berries.[23] 'Olallie' in turn is a cross between loganberry and youngberry. 'Marion', 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' are just three of many trailing blackberry cultivars developed by the United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) blackberry breeding program at Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon.[9]
The most recent cultivars released from this program are the thornless cultivars 'Black Diamond', 'Black Pearl', and 'Nightfall' as well as the early-ripening 'Obsidian' and 'Metolius'. 'Black Diamond' is now the leading cultivar being planted in the Pacific Northwest. Some of the other cultivars from this program are 'Newberry', 'Waldo', 'Siskiyou', 'Black Butte', '
Varieties with good commercial characteristics developed in Arkansas are grown in nurseries in Oklahoma.[2] Such blackberries are easy to grow, and may produce fruit for a decade or more.[2] These varieties have diverse flavors varying from sweet to tart.[2]
Trailing
Trailing blackberries are vigorous and crown-forming, require a
Thornless
Semi-erect, prickle-free blackberries were first developed at the John Innes Centre in Norwich, UK, and subsequently by the USDA-ARS in Beltsville, Maryland. These are crown forming and very vigorous and need a trellis for support. Cultivars include 'Black Satin', 'Chester Thornless', 'Dirksen Thornless', 'Hull Thornless', 'Loch Maree', 'Loch Ness', 'Loch Tay', 'Merton Thornless', 'Smoothstem', and 'Triple Crown'.[24] 'Loch Ness' and 'Loch Tay' have gained the RHS's Award of Garden Merit.[25] The cultivar 'Cacanska Bestrna' (also called 'Cacak Thornless') has been developed in Serbia and has been planted on many thousands of hectares there.
Erect
The University of Arkansas has developed cultivars of erect blackberries. These types are less vigorous than the semi-erect types and produce new canes from root initials (therefore they spread underground like raspberries). There are prickly and prickle-free cultivars from this program, including 'Navaho', 'Ouachita', 'Cherokee', 'Apache', 'Arapaho', and 'Kiowa'.[26][27] They are also responsible for developing the primocane fruiting blackberries such as 'Prime-Jan' and 'Prime-Jim'.[26]
Primocane
In raspberries, these types are called primocane fruiting, fall fruiting, or everbearing. 'Prime-Jim' and 'Prime-Jan' were released in 2004 by the University of Arkansas and are the first cultivars of primocane fruiting blackberry.[28] They grow much like the other erect cultivars described above; however, the canes that emerge in the spring will flower in midsummer and fruit in late summer or fall. The fall crop has its highest quality when it ripens in cool mild climate such as in California or the Pacific Northwest.[29]
'Illini Hardy', a semi-erect prickly cultivar introduced by the
Mexico and Chile
Blackberry production in Mexico expanded considerably in the early 21st century.[16][19] In 2017, Mexico had 97% of the market share for fresh blackberries imported into the United States, while Chile had 61% of the market share for American imports of frozen blackberries.[19]
While once based on the cultivar 'Brazos', an old erect blackberry cultivar developed in Texas in 1959, the Mexican industry is now dominated by the Brazilian 'Tupy' released in the 1990s. The 'Tupy' has the erect blackberry 'Comanche', and a "wild Uruguayan blackberry" as parents.[30] Since there are no native blackberries in Uruguay, the suspicion is that the widely grown 'Boysenberry' is the male parent. To produce these blackberries in regions of Mexico where there is no winter chilling to stimulate flower bud development, chemical defoliation and application of growth regulators are used to bring the plants into bloom.[citation needed]
Diseases and pests
Because blackberries belong to the same genus as raspberries,[31] they share the same diseases, including anthracnose, which can cause the berry to have uneven ripening. Sap flow may also be slowed.[32][33] They also share the same remedies, including the Bordeaux mixture,[34] a combination of lime, water and copper(II) sulfate.[35] The rows between blackberry plants must be free of weeds, blackberry suckers and grasses, which may lead to pests or diseases.[36] Fruit growers are selective when planting blackberry bushes because wild blackberries may be infected,[36] and gardeners are recommended to purchase only certified disease-free plants.[37]
The spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii, is a serious pest of blackberries.[38] Unlike its vinegar fly relatives, which are primarily attracted to rotting or fermented fruit, D. suzukii attacks fresh, ripe fruit by laying eggs under the soft skin. The larvae hatch and grow in the fruit, destroying the fruit's commercial value.[38]
Another pest is Amphorophora rubi, known as the blackberry aphid, which eats not just blackberries but raspberries as well.[39][40][41]
Byturus tomentosus (raspberry beetle), Lampronia corticella (raspberry moth) and Anthonomus rubi (strawberry blossom weevil) are also known to infest blackberries.[42]
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
---|---|
Energy | 180 kJ (43 kcal) |
9.61 g | |
Sugars | 4.88 g |
Dietary fiber | 5.3 g |
0.49 g | |
1.39 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 4% 0.646 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 2% 0.030 mg |
Folate (B9) | 6% 25 μg |
Vitamin C | 23% 21.0 mg |
Vitamin E | 8% 1.17 mg |
Vitamin K | 17% 19.8 μg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 2% 29 mg |
Iron | 3% 0.62 mg |
Magnesium | 5% 20 mg |
Manganese | 28% 0.646 mg |
Phosphorus | 2% 22 mg |
Potassium | 5% 162 mg |
Sodium | 0% 1 mg |
Zinc | 5% 0.53 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 88 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[43] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[44] |
Uses
Nutrients
Raw blackberries are 88% water, 10%
(19% DV) (table).Seed composition
Blackberries contain numerous large seeds that are not always preferred by consumers. The seeds contain oil rich in
Culinary use
The ripe fruit is commonly used in desserts, jams, jelly, wine and liqueurs. It may be mixed with other berries and fruits for pies and crumbles.[citation needed]
Phytochemical research
Blackberries contain numerous
Historical uses
One of the earliest known instances of blackberry consumption comes from the remains of the
Blackberry plants were used for traditional medicine by Greeks, other European peoples, and aboriginal Americans.[21] A 1771 document described brewing blackberry leaves, stem, and bark for stomach ulcers.[21]
Blackberry fruit, leaves, and stems have been used to dye fabrics and hair. Native Americans have even been known to use the stems to make rope. The shrubs have also been used for barriers around buildings, crops and livestock. The wild plants have sharp, thick prickles, which offered some protection against enemies and large animals.[21]
In culture
Folklore in the United Kingdom and Ireland tells that blackberries should not be picked after
See also
- Rubus plicatus, a common European species of blackberry
- Elmleaf blackberry, another common European species of blackberry
- Pacific blackberry, a North American species of blackberry
- Rubus fruticosus, an ambiguous name used by Carl Linnaeus that applied to multiple species
- bramble
- Redberry mite, a common pest of North American blackberry crops
References
- JSTOR 1222833.
- ^ a b c d e f Carroll B (February 2017). "Commercial Blackberry Production". Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Oklahoma State University. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
- ^ a b "Himalayan blackberry". Invasive Species Council of BC. 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
- ^ a b c d "Himalayan blackberry: identification and control". King County, Washington: Noxious Weed Control Program. 16 February 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
- ^ Gina Fernandez; Elena Garcia; David Lockwood. "Fruit development". North Carolina State University, Cooperative Extension. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
- ISBN 978-0199206872.
- ^ OCLC 25202760.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Krewer, Gerard; Fonseca, Marco; Brannen, Phil; Horton, Dan (2004). "Home Garden:Raspberries, Blackberries" (PDF). Cooperative Extension Service/The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 November 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f "Thornless processing blackberry cultivars". US Department of Agriculture. 26 June 2018. Archived from the original on 21 June 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
- OCLC 41355268.
- ^ Green, David L. "Blackberry Pollination Images". The Pollination Home Page.
- S2CID 16250883.
- JSTOR 20696310.
- ISBN 9780313314360. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
- ^ Marrone, Teresa (2011). Indiana, Kentucky, and Ohio wild berries & fruits. Teresa Marrone. p. 272.
- ^ a b Perry, Mark J. (7 October 2017). "Mexico's berry bounty fuels trade dispute – U.S. consumers dismiss U.S. berry farmers' complaints as 'sour berries'". American Enterprise Institute, Washington, DC. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
- ^ "Tupy blackberry, at risk due to lack of interest in its production". FreshPlaza. 10 May 2018. Archived from the original on 21 June 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
- ^ "Press Release June 27, 2018" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, Northwest Regional Field Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 February 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
- ^ a b c "Blackberries". US Agriculture Marketing Resource Center. 1 February 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
- ^ "Evergreen blackberry, Oregon Raspberry and Blackberry Commission". Oregon-Berries.com. Archived from the original on 4 October 2008. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f Harding, Deborah. "The History of the Blackberry Fruit". gardenguides.com. Garden Guides, Leaf Group Ltd. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
- ^ "'Triple Crown' thornless blackberry". US Department of Agriculture. 2 February 1998. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
- ^ "Marionberry, Oregon Raspberry and Blackberry Commission". Oregon-Berries.com. Archived from the original on 19 September 2008. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
- ISBN 978-1578087075.
- ^ "AGM Plants © RHS – CROPS BLACKBERRIES" (PDF). Royal Horticultural Society. November 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 August 2018. Retrieved 21 November 2019.
- ^ ISBN 978-1578087075.
- ^ Fernandez, Gina; Ballington, James. "Growing blackberries in North Carolina". North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, North Carolina University Press. p. 2. Archived from the original on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
- ]
- .
- ISSN 1516-8840.
- ISBN 978-1605296777. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
- ^ "Growing Raspberries & Blackberries" (PDF). cals.uidaho.edu. p. 29. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
- ^ Controlling diseases of raspberries and blackberries. United States. Science and Education Administration. 1980. p. 5. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
- ^ Waite, Merton Benway (1906). Fungicides and their use in preventing diseases of fruits. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. p. 243. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
blackberry disease.
- ^ "Bordeaux Mixture". ucdavis.edu. June 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
- ^ ISBN 9780849389818. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
- ISBN 978-0897215046. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
- ^ a b Walsh, Doug. "Spotted Wing Drosophila Could Pose Threat For Washington Fruit Growers" (PDF). sanjuan.WSU.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 August 2010. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
- ISBN 978-0521240130. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
- ^ The Review of Applied Entomology: Agricultural, Volume 18. CAB International. 1931. p. 539. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
- ]
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- )
- S2CID 32100735.
- ^ "Nutrition facts for raw blackberries". Nutritiondata.com. Conde Nast. 2012.
- PMID 11929309.
- PMID 16825686.
- ^ Gross PM (1 March 2009), New Roles for Polyphenols. A 3-Part report on Current Regulations & the State of Science, Nutraceuticals World
- ^ "Michaelmas Traditions". BlackCountryBugle.co.uk. 7 October 2010. Archived from the original on 30 March 2012. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
- ^ "Michaelmas, 29th September, and the customs and traditions associated with Michaelmas Day". www.Historic-UK.com. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-12-374086-1.
- ^ Alexander, Courtney. "Berries As Symbols and in Folklore" (PDF). Cornell Fruit. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
- ^ Hawthorn. Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature, Volume 11; R.S. Peale. 1891.
- ^ Ombrello T (2015). "Crown of thorns". Union County College, Department of Biology, Cranford, NJ. Archived from the original on 17 September 2009. Retrieved 18 August 2015.
Further reading
- Allen, D. E.; Hackney, P. (2010). "Further fieldwork on the brambles (Rubus fruticosus L. agg.) of North-east Ireland". Irish Naturalists' Journal. 31: 18–22.
External links
- Media related to Blackberry at Wikimedia Commons