Chevrolet Volt (first generation)
Chevrolet Volt (first generation) | ||
---|---|---|
Curb weight 1,691–1,721 kg (3,729–3,794 lb) (Volt) | 1,686–1,732 kg (3,717–3,818 lb) (Ampera) | |
Chronology | ||
Successor | Chevrolet Volt (second generation) |
The Chevrolet Volt is a compact car that was produced by General Motors. The first generation of the Chevrolet Volt, it was manufactured at the Detroit facility until it was succeeded by the second and final generation of the Volt in 2015. It is a five-door liftback with a range-extending generator.
In 2006, under the direction of GM Vice President
Official
The Chevrolet Volt functions as a battery electric vehicle until its battery capacity diminishes to a predefined threshold from full charge. At that point, its internal combustion engine activates an electric generator to extend the vehicle's range as necessary. During high-speed operation on gasoline, the engine may be mechanically linked to a generator set through a clutch, improving efficiency by 10% to 15%. The Volt's regenerative braking system also contributes to on-board electricity generation.
Terminology
According to the
The
Design and development
Concept vehicle
"When the car's cover was removed, I remember thinking I really didn't care what sort of power source might be inside this compact sedan. I liked the car's design and hoped it would find its way to the road as quickly as possible. But the big news wasn't the package, it was the powertrain. This stunning vehicle was designed to showcase a technology that General Motors promised would be a significant step in weaning America and its motorists from their dependence on imported oil."
Robert Lutz (2010)[11]
The Chevrolet Volt
Led by then-vice-chairman for global product development at General Motors
The majority of the Volt's initial design parameters defined for the development of the concept car then referred to as the "iCar" in homage to the
A major design decision was to develop the concept car based on a new family of common
In October 2006, General Motors selected the E-Flex powertrain as the new propulsion architecture. They chose the name Volt.
With a fuel capacity of 12 US gal (45 L; 10.0 imp gal), which provides the vehicle with a total driving range of approximately 640 mi (1,030 km), the car combines a gasoline fuel efficiency of approximately 50 mpg‑US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg‑imp) and an all-electric range of 40 mi (64 km). General Motors estimated that a daily drive of 60 mi (97 km), coupled with an overnight recharge to support the first 40 all-electric miles, would result in an effective gasoline fuel economy of 150 mpg‑US (1.6 L/100 km; 180 mpg‑imp).
Lutz initially claimed that the Volt was expected to sell for around US$30,000, based on the cost of a conventional car of that size with a four-cylinder engine. Additionally, an extra US$8,000 was estimated for the
Production model
General Motors stated on December 7, 2009, that
After the concept was put into the pipeline for production, General Motors began searching for a partner to develop the Volt's
In April 2008, General Motors began extensive testing on its batteries. Over the subsequent two years, the engineering team subjected the battery packs to the equivalent of 150,000 real-world miles (240,000 km) and 10 years of usage.
In October 2008, GM selected CPI (LG Chemical) to provide the battery systems for the first production version of the Volt.
The manufacture-ready vehicle was officially unveiled on the morning of September 16, 2008, as part of the General Motors centennial celebration at the
On November 30, 2010, General Motors hosted a ceremony at its Detroit Hamtramck Assembly Plant to unveil the first Chevrolet Volt produced on the assembly line. The first Volt designated for retail distribution was slated for exhibition at GM's Heritage Center museum in Sterling Heights, Michigan.[50] The second unit was placed up for public auction, with an opening bid of US$50,000. The auction was won by Rick Hendrick, who secured the vehicle for US$225,000. The proceeds from this auction were directed towards supporting mathematics and science educations in Detroit through the Detroit Public Schools Foundation.[51] The first delivery in the United States took place on December 15, 2010 to retired pilot Jeffrey Kaffee.[52] Canadian deliveries commenced in September 2011.[53][54] The first deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in Europe took place in November 2011.[55][56] The Opel Ampera, a rebadged Volt with stylistic modifications, became available to retail customers in Europe in February 2012.[57] Deliveries of the right-hand drive Vauxhall Ampera for the United Kingdom began in May 2012.[55] The Holden Volt was released for the Australian market in December 2012.[58][59]
Design
Designers at General Motors sought to make the Volt's design as conventional as possible.[60] Engineers were dedicated to minimizing aerodynamic drag,[61] but they intentionally avoided incorporating the distinctive roofline and silhouette of the second-generation Prius, considering it synonymous with the 'hybrid' aesthetic.[62][63] The Volt and Ampera share a common 2,685 mm (105.7 in) wheelbase and are comparable in length to the Opel Astra J and Cruze J300, with which they also share their fundamental body structures. While front and rear bumpers are unique to each car, the doors, fenders, hood panels, and interiors are interchangeable. In adopting a more general style, Opel had to forgo distinctive design elements including the "side blade" and "wing" motifs. However, front and rear bumper assemblies are unique to each car, and thus the team specifically focused on these areas.[64] Bob Boniface served as the design director for the concept and production iterations of the Volt.[65][66]
In April 2007,
When the Volt was approved for production, I decided we needed a dedicated mix of designers and engineers from the show-car team, working together with people from vehicle aerodynamics and the production side, and they needed their own creative space.
Necessary
Specifications
Drivetrain
The 2011 Chevrolet Volt featured a 16 kWh / 45 A·h (10.4 kWh usable) lithium-ion battery pack.[71][72] It can be charged by connecting the car to a 120–240 VAC residential electrical outlet using the provided SAE J1772-compliant charging cord.[73] The Volt is powered by an electric motor that has a peak output of 111 kW (149 hp) delivering 273 lb⋅ft (370 N⋅m) of torque.[74] Capacity of the battery pack was increased to 16.5 kWh (10.9 kWh usable) for 2013 models, which enhanced its all-electric range from 35 to 38 mi (56 to 61 km).[75][76] Upgrades for 2015 models included a larger battery capacity of 17.1 kWh.[77]
While driving, when the Volt's battery level diminishes to a predetermined threshold from full charge, a compact
The drivetrain enables the Volt to operate as a pure
While operating modes are switched automatically, the Volt allows three distinct drive options available to the driver: normal, sport, and mountain.[83] The mountain mode, which is expected to be required only under unusual power demand conditions, increases minimum battery state of charge (SOC) to around 45%, thus maintaining performance on steep and long grades. However, the higher power generation rate in this mode results in increased engine noise.[82] In sport mode, the engine operates at a higher RPM, providing a more responsive reaction to the throttle pedal.[84] Additionally, the Ampera introduces a functionality known as "City Mode" or "battery hold", allowing drivers to conserve energy stored in the battery for urban travel or restricted zones. This feature was introduced to the 2013 model year Volt and is known as "Hold".[85][86][87]
Battery
The
For the 2011 and 2012 model years, the 16 kWh battery was controlled by the energy management system to use only 10.3 kWh, maximizing the life of the pack.[91] Consequently, the battery is prevented from reaching full charge or complete depletion, as the embedded software confines its operation within a specific State of Charge (SoC) window set at 65%. Once this threshold is reached, the engine engages and maintains the charge near the lower level. The minimum SoC varies depending on operating conditions. In situations where the vehicle requires increased power, such as during mountain mode, the lower threshold of the states of charge (SoC) is increased to 45% to ensure an ample supply of power.[82] The battery capacity was increased to 16.5 kWh for the 2013 model year, and the SoC window was increased to use 10.8 kWh of the total battery energy, and the buffer to ensure battery life longevity. These adjustments extend the Volt's all-electric range, albeit with a marginal increase in charging duration. General Motors achieved improved battery performance and durability by making subtle alterations to the material composition of the battery cell chemistry.[92][93][94]
Despite the energy of each battery pack being nearly identical (±0.5 kWh), the Volt's battery pack is over 70% lighter than the
The Volt employs the J1772 charging plug, a standard connector for electric cars in North America.[100] Depending on in-car settings, a full charge takes from approximately 10 hours (with the 12 A setting) to as much as 14 hours (8 A setting) from a standard North American 120-volt receptacle. From a 240-volt source, a full charge takes around 4 hours.[101][102]
Production and markets
North America
Assembly of the Volt was assigned to
In 2010, General Motors initially planned to produce 10,000 Volts in the calendar year 2011 and 45,000 units for 2012, surpassing the initially announced 30,000 units.
In mid-June 2011, General Motors (GM) temporarily halted production at the Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly plant for approximately one month. This pause was undertaken to implement important upgrades, including the installation of new tooling, equipment, and overhead conveyor systems across the facility. These allowed GM to triple the production rate of the Volt, facilitating the plant's readiness for the manufacturing of the 2012 Volt and Ampera.[114][115][116] After the plant retooling, the production rate reached 150 units per day four days a week by August 2011.[117] The Volt plant also underwent a shutdown in January 2012 to prepare for the production of the California lower-emission version.[111] A four-week hiatus due to slow sales occurred between March and April 2012.[118] GM, citing around 3,600 Volts in inventory, desired to reduce dealer inventories as production was expected to meet market demand.[111][119] From September 17 to October 15, 2012, GM closed its Detroit-Hamtramck plant, affecting approximately 1,500 workers during downtime. This closure was for retooling to accommodate the assembly of the all-new tenth generation Chevrolet Impala alongside the 2013 Volt.[120]
In July 2012, production officially began for the 2013 model year Volt; deliveries commenced in the same month.[121] In October 2012, GM announced that the Detroit-Hamtramck Assembly plant would serve as the manufacturing site for the Cadillac ELR luxury range-extender coupe, alongside the Volt and the Ampera. The inclusion of the ELR at the plant involved an investment of US$35 million, contributing to a cumulative product expenditure of US$561 million since December 2009.[122] The first 2014 ELRs were produced in late May 2013, serving as pre-production units designated for testing before retail production began by the close of 2013.[123] Official manufacture of the first generation ended on May 21, 2015; assembly of the pre-production second generation units began in March.[124][125]
In February 2012, GM introduced a low-emission version tailored for the Californian market. It features a package that classifies it as an "enhanced, advanced technology – partial zero-emissions vehicle" (enhAT-PZEV), granting it access to California's high-occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV).[126] Updates encompass alterations to its engine and exhaust components. The catalytic converter was modified to add a secondary air-injection pump that introduces ambient air into the exhaust stream to help remove pollutants.[127][128]
Europe
The European version of the Volt, the
While the Volt and Ampera share the same powertrain and battery pack, their primary distinctions lie in their styling.
The carmaker targeted the Ampera for the business fleet market and local government agencies, where Opel has a strong customer base, while the Volt is aimed at retail customers.
Despite sharing European Car of the Year with the Volt in 2012, the Ampera faced challenges in gaining widespread commercial success since its launch. In 2013, sales experienced a 40 per cent decline, totaling 3,184 cars. The deceleration continued into the following year, with sales plummeting by 67 percent in the first five months to 332 cars. GM hinted at Ampera's forthcoming discontinuation in early 2013, as then-vice chairman Steve Girsky expressed frustration regarding the car's unenthusiastic reception in Europe. "All the governments in Europe said, 'We want EVs, we want EVs'. We show up with one, and where is everybody?", stated Girsky.[139]
Australasia
Deliveries of the Holden Volt in the Australian market began in December 2012, with the first unit delivered to the U.S. Ambassador in
The Holden Volt was made accessible through 49 selected Holden dealerships across metropolitan and rural areas of Australia. Of these, 18 were located in Victoria, 11 in New South Wales, 9 in Queensland, 7 in Western Australia, and 4 in South Australia.[142] By mid-April 2015, a total of 246 units had been sold, depleting the stock of the first generation. In response to General Motors' announcement that the second generation Volt would not be produced in a right-hand-drive configuration, the Volt was discontinued in Australia upon the sale of the remaining stock.[143]
The Holden Volt was introduced in New Zealand through three dealerships in Auckland, Christchurch and Wellington,[144] with deliveries starting in late 2012.[145] By mid-2015, only 16 units were registered despite a price drop of more than NZ$10,000. Due to low sales of the first-generation model, the second-generation Volt was not available in New Zealand.[146]
Controversies and criticism
EPA fuel economy testing
In 2008, General Motors expressed concerns regarding the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) testing procedures for the Volt's official fuel economy rating. The focal point of the controversy revolved around whether the inclusion of a gasoline engine should categorize the Volt as a hybrid electric vehicle rather than an electric car, as asserted by General Motors. If subjected to the same EPA tests applied to other hybrids, the Volt's EPA fuel economy rating would be about 48 mpg‑US (4.9 L/100 km; 58 mpg‑imp) due to the EPA test for hybrids, prohibiting vehicles from boosting their mpg rating using stored battery power. General Motors argued that the Volt was an entirely new vehicle type not adequately assessed by the EPA's existing fuel economy tests. They advocated for the creation of a new test tailored to the emerging class of hybrid-electrics.[147] General Motors also advocated for a more simplified mpg calculation method to take into account the range of a plug-in hybrid while running solely on electricity. Given the Volt's ability to travel 40 miles (64 km) on batteries alone, GM contended that most drivers with a daily commute of less than that distance would exclusively use electric mode provided they recharged their vehicle at work or home overnight.[148]
In November 2010, the EPA issued an official rating that included separate fuel economy ratings for the Volt's all-electric and gasoline-only modes. The overall combined city/highway gasoline-electricity fuel economy rating was stated as 60 mpg‑US (3.9 L/100 km; 72 mpg‑imp)
EPA fuel economy rating
In August 2009, General Motors released an estimated city
The official EPA rating was eventually issued in November 2010, becoming the agency's first
Battery pack fire risk
In June 2011, a Volt that had been subjected by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) to a 20 mph (32 km/h) side pole impact crash test, followed by a post-impact rollover, caught fire three weeks later in the test center parking lot, leading to the combustion of nearby vehicles. The investigation determined that the source of the fire was the Volt's battery. Following the incident, both Chevrolet and the NHTSA independently replicated the crash test and a subsequent vehicle rotation procedure to test for any fluid leakage. In their initial attempt, they were unable to reproduce the conditions that led to the battery pack ignition. The NHTSA concluded that the crash test had damaged the Volt's lithium-ion battery, ultimately causing a vehicle fire that took several weeks to manifest.[157][158] In further testing of the Volt's batteries in November 2011, conducted by the NHTSA, two out of three tests resulted in thermal events. One battery pack rotated 180 degrees shortly after impact, began smoking and emitting sparks. In the other case, the battery pack that had been crash-tested a week earlier and was under monitoring since the test caught fire. In response to these findings, on November 25, 2011, the NHTSA took an unusual step and initiated a formal safety defect investigation, even without data from real-world incidents. The investigation aimed to examine the potential risks associated with intrusion damage to the battery pack in the Chevrolet Volt.[159][160] Following the initial Volt fire, the NHTSA examined other plug-in electric vehicles, including the Nissan Leaf, and stated that its testing "has not raised safety concerns about vehicles other than the Chevy Volt".[161]
As a consequence of the investigation, General Motors announced that it would offer any new GM car as an exchange for concerned Volt owners while the federal investigation was ongoing.[162][163] In December 2011, the company expressed its readiness to recall all vehicles and implement necessary repairs once the cause of the fires was determined. GM also stated its willingness to repurchase the car if an owner felt uneasy about the potential fire risk.[162][164] The CEO of GM acknowledged the possibility of redesigning or making changes to the battery pack based on recommendations from federal officials.[162] By December 1, 2011, 33 Volt owners in the U.S. and 3 in Canada had requested loaner cars.[162][165] By December 5, General Motors reported that several dozen Volt owners had requested the company to buy back their cars, with the company agreeing to repurchase about a dozen. Before the carmaker agrees to buy back each vehicle, other options are explored as GM primarily wants to provide loaner cars, but "if the only way we can make them happy is to repurchase it, then we will", stated GM spokesman Selim Bingol. General Motors explained that the buyback price includes the Volt purchase price, plus taxes and fees, less a usage fee based on how many miles the car has been run.[166][167] By January 5, 2012, GM reported that approximately 250 Volt owners had requested either a loaner vehicle or a potential buyback.[168]
The NHTSA also mentioned its collaboration with all automakers to establish post-crash procedures ensuring the safety of occupants in electric vehicles and emergency responders at crash scenes. Additionally, the NHTSA cautioned about the potential for fires to occur a significant time after a crash. General Motors asserted that the initial fire could have been prevented if the company's protocols for deactivating the battery post-crash had been followed.[169] In another statement, the carmaker expressed its ongoing efforts, stating "We are working with other vehicle manufacturers, first responders, tow truck operators, and salvage associations to implement industrywide protocols".[169]
Battery enhancements
On January 5, 2012, General Motors announced its intention to implement a customer-satisfaction initiative for the Chevrolet Volt. The program was designed to introduce voluntary enhancements, addressing concerns about the potential for the battery pack to catch fire days or weeks after a severe accident. General Motors clarified that neither the car nor the battery was being recalled. The company identified the June fire incident as stemming from a minor intrusion into a side section of the battery pack, causing a small coolant leak of approximately 50 mL (1.8 imp fl oz; 1.7 US fl oz). When the vehicle was put through a slow roll, where it was rotated at 90-degree increments, holding in each position for about five minutes, an additional 1 liter (0.22 imp gal; 0.26 U.S. gal) of coolant leaked. With the vehicle in the 180-degree position (upside down), the coolant came in contact with the printed circuit board electronics at the top of the battery pack and later crystallized. Three weeks later, this condition, combined with a charged battery, led to a short circuit, resulting in the post-crash fire.[170][171]
General Motors clarified that the modifications aim to reinforce the vehicle structure surrounding the battery and enhance the battery coolant system for improved battery protection following a severe crash. The safety upgrades include strengthening a specific section of the Volt's vehicle safety structure to provide additional safeguarding for the battery pack during a severe side collision. This involves incorporating a sensor in the battery coolant system reservoir to monitor coolant levels and adding a tamper-resistant bracket to the top of the reservoir to prevent potential coolant overfill.[170][171] The additional side safety structural pieces have a total weight of 2 to 3 lb (0.91 to 1.36 kg), and their function is to spread the load of a severe side impact away from the battery pack, reducing the possibility of intrusion into the pack.[172]
In December 2011, General Motors conducted four crash tests on Volts equipped with reinforced steel and an upgraded cooling system. The results showed no intrusion to the battery and no coolant leakage. On December 22, 2011, the NHTSA subjected a modified Volt to the same test that initially resulted in the fire, revealing no indications of the damage believed to have caused the incident. The NHTSA stated that "the preliminary results of the crash test indicate the remedy proposed by General Motors today should address the issue of battery intrusion", although their investigation remained ongoing. General Motors did not disclose the cost of the modifications.[170][171]
All 12,400 Chevrolet Volts manufactured until December 2011, including the Amperas held in stock at European dealerships, were slated to receive the safety enhancements. As production was temporarily halted during the holidays, the modifications were implemented when production resumed in early 2012. Sales continued, and dealers carried out the necessary modifications on the Volts they had in stock. General Motors communicated to Volt owners, advising them that they could schedule a service appointment to safeguard their batteries starting in the last week of March 2012.[168][172]
NHTSA findings
On January 20, 2012, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) concluded its safety defect investigation concerning the Volt's post-crash fire risk. The agency determined that there was "no discernible defect trend" and acknowledged that the modifications recently implemented by General Motors were effective in reducing the potential for battery intrusion resulting from side impacts. The NHTSA also stated that, based on the available data, it did not believe that Chevy Volts or other electric vehicles posed a greater risk of fire compared to gasoline-powered vehicles. The agency also announced the development of interim guidance aimed at increasing awareness and identifying appropriate safety measures regarding electric vehicles for the emergency response community, law enforcement officers, tow truck operators, storage facilities and consumers.[173][174]
House of Representatives hearing
The chairman of the Subcommittee on Regulatory Affairs, Stimulus Oversight, and Government Spending, U.S. Representative Jim Jordan, held hearings on January 25, 2012, to probe into why the NHTSA initiated a formal investigation only five months after the first post-crash battery fire occurred in June. The subcommittee, a part of the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, aimed to ascertain whether government officials, including those from the NHTSA, intentionally withheld information about the Volt fire for political reasons.[175][176] Both Daniel Akerson, General Motors CEO, and David L. Strickland, NHTSA administrator, denied any wrongdoing.[177][178]
Awards and recognition
Year | Award | Publisher/Awarded at | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
U.S. organizations | |||
2009 | Green Car Vision Award | Green Car Journal | [179] |
2011 | Motor Trend Car of the Year | Motor Trend | [180] |
2011 | Car and Driver Ten Best Cars |
Car and Driver | [181] |
2011 | Green Car of the Year | Green Car Journal | [182] |
2011 | Automobile of the Year | Automobile Magazine |
[183] |
2011 | North American Car of the Year | North American International Auto Show[note 3] | [184] |
2011 | Greenest Vehicles of the Year | American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy | [185] |
2011 | Best Green Cars | Mother Earth News | [186] |
2011 | Edison Award[note 4] | Edison Awards | [187] |
2011 | Best Resale Value Award [note 5] | Kelley Blue Book | [188] |
European organizations | |||
2011 | Winner of What Car? Green Awards (Vauxhall Ampera) | What Car? | [189] |
2011 | European Car of the Year[note 6] | Geneva Motor Show |
[190][191] |
2013 | Green Mobility Trophy | Auto Zeitung |
[192] |
International organizations | |||
2011 | World Green Car |
World Car of the Year |
[193] |
2012 | International Engine of the Year Award [note 7] |
UKi Media & Events | [194] |
Australian organizations | |||
2012 | Green Innovation Award (Holden Volt)[note 8] | Drive | [195] |
-
The Chevrolet Volt won the 2011 Motor Trend Car of the Year award.
-
Opel Ampera exhibited with the 2012Geneva Motor Show
References
Notes
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Footnotes
- ^ The system of motors comprises one 111 kW (149 hp) unit and a less powerful 55 kW (74 hp) unit.
- ^ "E" stands for electric drive, and "Flex" for the various sources of electricity.[21][22]
- ^ Both judges and writers voted for this; the Volt was the choice of 49 American and Canadian automobile writers, while the judges based their opinion on innovation, design, safety, handling, driver satisfaction and value.
- ^ The Volt received the Gold position in the Personal Transportation segment.
- ^ In the plug-in electric vehicle segment
- ^ This was awarded to both the Chevrolet Volt and Opel Ampera. They became the first US-developed automobiles to win this award.
- ^ In the category of "Green Engine". This award was given to both the Volt and Ampera.
- ^ As part of the Drive's Car of the Year Awards
External links
- Official website (archived)