Religion in Iceland
Religion in Iceland has been predominantly
Starting in the 1530s,
Since the late 20th century, and especially in the early 21st century, religious life in Iceland has become more diverse, with a decline in the main forms of Christianity, the rise of unaffiliated people, and the emergence of new religions, notably
As of 2023, Christians constituted 69.55% of the Icelandic population, a marked decline from the 97.8% observed in 1990 according to Statistics Iceland. Within the Christian category, 58.61% identified as Lutherans belonging to the Church of Iceland. This is a significant decrease from the 92.6% who identified this way in 1990. Other minor Lutheran free churches accounted for 5.33%, Roman Catholicism for 3.83%, and other Christian denominations for 1.78%.[1] The Roman Catholic community has grown from 0.9% in 1990, and other Christian denominations saw growth mainly between 1990 and the 2010s, stabilizing thereafter.[1][4]
The data for 2023 also indicate an increase in non-Christian religious affiliations and in those who identify as non-religious. Heathenry, a polytheistic religion native to Iceland, accounted for 1.5% of the population. Humanists made up 1.39%, Buddhists 0.42%, and Muslims 0.40%. Zuists and adherents to other religions represented 0.14% and 0.16%, respectively.[1][4]
A growing segment of the population—18.73% as of 2023—adheres to religions, philosophies, or life stances not recognized in the civil registry, or did not declare any religious affiliation. This category has seen a substantial increase from 0.6% in 1990 and has tripled from 6.2% in 2010. Meanwhile, the percentage of Icelanders who declared themselves explicitly unaffiliated with any religion, philosophy, or life stance was 7.71% in 2023, up from 1.3% in 1990.[1][4]
Demographics
Religion | 1990 | 1995 | 2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 | 2020 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | |
Christianity | 250,501 | 97.9% | 260,311 | 97.2% | 268,642 | 95.0% | 277,863 | 92.8% | 284,146 | 89.5% | 276,649 | 83.2% | 273,321 | 75.1% |
└ Church of Iceland[a] | 236,959 | 92.6% | 245,049 | 91.5% | 248,411 | 87.8% | 251,728 | 84.0% | 251,487 | 79.1% | 237,938 | 71.5% | 231,112 | 63.47% |
└ Other non-Catholic Christians | 11,146 | 4.3% | 12,709 | 4.7% | 15,924 | 5.6% | 19,684 | 6.6% | 22,987 | 7.2% | 26,297 | 7.9% | 27,577 | 7.57% |
└ Catholic Church | 2,396 | 0.9% | 2,553 | 0.95% | 4,307 | 1.5% | 6,451 | 2.15% | 9,672 | 3.0% | 12,414 | 3.7% | 14,632 | 4.02% |
Heathenry | 98 | 0.03% | 190 | 0.07% | 512 | 0.2% | 953 | 0.3% | 1,422 | 0.4% | 3,210 | 1.0% | 4,764 | 1.31% |
Humanism | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1,456 | 0.4% | 3,507 | 0.96% |
Buddhism | – | – | 230 | 0.08% | 466 | 0.2% | 685 | 0.2% | 1,090 | 0.3% | 1,336 | 0.4% | 1,495 | 0.42% |
Islam | – | – | – | – | 164 | 0.05% | 341 | 0.1% | 591 | 0.2% | 865 | 0.3% | 1,281 | 0.35% |
Zuism | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 3,087 | 1.0% | 1,213 | 0.33% |
Baháʼí Faith | 378 | 0.1% | 402 | 0.15% | 386 | 0.1% | 389 | 0.1% | 398 | 0.1% | 365 | 0.1% | 353 | 0.1% |
Other and unspecified[b] | 1,505 | 0.6% | 2,753 | 1.0% | 6,325 | 2.2% | 11,794 | 3.9% | 19,647 | 6.2% | 26,359 | 7.9% | 52,086 | 14.3% |
Unaffiliated[c] | 3,373 | 1.3% | 3,923 | 1.4% | 6,350 | 2.2% | 7,379 | 2.5% | 10,336 | 3.2% | 19,202 | 5.7% | 26,114 | 7.17% |
Population | 255,855 | 100% | 267,809 | 100% | 282,845 | 100% | 299,404 | 100% | 317,630 | 100% | 332,529 | 100% | 364,134 | 100% |
Organisation | Religion | Members | % |
---|---|---|---|
Church of Iceland[a] (Þjóðkirkjan) |
Christianity | 227,259 | 58.61 |
Other religions and unspecified[b] | Various | 72,631 | 18.73 |
Unaffiliated[c] | Unknown | 29,883 | 7.71 |
Catholic Church (Kaþólska kirkjan) |
Christianity | 14,869 | 3.83 |
Free Church in Reykjavík (Fríkirkjan í Reykjavík) |
Christianity | 9,953 | 2.57 |
Free Church in Hafnarfjörður (Fríkirkjan í Hafnarfirði) |
Christianity | 7,509 | 1.94 |
Asatruar Fellowship (Ásatrúarfélagið) |
Heathenry Germanic Neopaganism |
5,770 | 1.49 |
Icelandic Ethical Humanist Association (Siðmennt félag siðrænna húmanista á Íslandi) |
Secular humanism | 5,401 | 1.39 |
Independent Congregation (Óháði söfnuðurinn) |
Christianity | 3,166 | 0.82 |
Pentecostal Church in Iceland (Hvítasunnukirkjan á Íslandi) |
Christianity | 2,076 | 0.54 |
Buddhist Fellowship of Iceland (Búddistafélag Íslands) |
Buddhism | 1,101 | 0.28 |
Russian Orthodox Church (Rússneska rétttrúnaðarkirkjan) |
Christianity | 783 | 0.20 |
Fellowship of Muslims in Iceland (Félag múslima á Íslandi) |
Islam | 569 | 0.15 |
Seventh-day Adventist Church in Iceland (Kirkja sjöunda dags aðventista á Íslandi) |
Christianity | 598 | 0.15 |
Jehovah's Witnesses (Vottar Jehóva) |
Christianity | 565 | 0.15 |
Organisation of Muslims in Iceland (Stofnun múslima á Íslandi) |
Islam | 551 | 0.14 |
Faith Fellowship of Zuism (Zuism trúfélag) |
Zuism Mesopotamian Neopaganism |
525 | 0.14 |
The Way Church for You (Vegurinn kirkja fyrir þig) |
Christianity | 441 | 0.11 |
Islamic Cultural Centre of Iceland (Menningarsetur múslima á Íslandi) |
Islam | 409 | 0.11 |
Serbian Orthodox Church (Serbneska rétttrúnaðarkirkjan) |
Christianity | 391 | 0.10 |
Church of Smárinn (Smárakirkja) |
Christianity | 363 | 0.09 |
Baháʼí Community (Baháʼí samfélagið) |
Baháʼí Faith | 324 | 0.08 |
Faith Fellowship of the Salvation Army (Hjálpræðisherinn trúfélag) |
Christianity | 241 | 0.06 |
Icelandic Church of Christ (Íslenska Kristskirkjan) |
Christianity | 231 | 0.06 |
Zen in Iceland (Zen á Íslandi) |
Buddhism | 207 | 0.05 |
DíaMat | Dialectical materialism | 192 | 0.05 |
Catch the Fire (Catch the Fire) |
Christianity | 191 | 0.05 |
SGI in Iceland (SGI á Íslandi) |
Buddhism | 158 | 0.04 |
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Kirkja Jesú Krists hinna síðari daga heilögu) |
Christianity | 141 | 0.04 |
Christian Community of Betania (Betanía kristið samfélag) |
Christianity | 136 | 0.04 |
Wat Phra Dhammakaya Buddhist Association in Iceland (Wat Phra Dhammakaya búddistasamtökin á Íslandi) |
Buddhism | 131 | 0.03 |
Church of the Annunciation (Boðunarkirkjan) |
Christianity | 118 | 0.03 |
Church of God Ministry of Jesus Christ International (Alþjóðleg kirkja Guðs og embætti Jesú Krists) |
Christianity | 113 | 0.03 |
Free Church of Kefas (Fríkirkjan Kefas) |
Christianity | 95 | 0.02 |
Lakulish Yoga in Iceland (Lakulish jóga á Íslandi) |
Hinduism | 60 | 0.02 |
Home Church (Heimakirkja) |
Christianity | 59 | 0.02 |
Baptist Church of the Emmanuel (Emmanúel baptistakirkjan) |
Christianity | 55 | 0.01 |
Cultural Fellowship of Jews in Iceland (Menningarfélag Gyðinga á Íslandi) |
Judaism | 55 | 0.01 |
First Baptist Church (Fyrsta baptistakirkjan) |
Christianity | 51 | 0.01 |
Tibetan Buddhist Fellowship (Félag Tíbet búddista) |
Buddhism | 45 | 0.01 |
Diamond Way Buddhism (Demantsleið búddismans) |
Buddhism | 38 | 0.01 |
Heaven on Earth (Himinn á jörðu) |
Christianity | 37 | 0.01 |
Godword of Reykjavík (Reykjavíkurgoðorð) |
Heathenry Germanic Neopaganism |
36 | 0.01 |
Congregation of Sjónarhæð (Sjónarhæðarsöfnuðurinn) |
Christianity | 35 | 0.01 |
Theosophical Society of Iceland (Lífspekifélag Íslands) |
Theosophy | 28 | 0.01 |
House of Prayer (Bænahúsið) |
Christianity | 26 | 0.01 |
Fellowship of Believers (Samfélag trúaðra) |
Christianity | 24 | 0.01 |
Church of the Resurrected Life (Kirkja hins upprisna lífs) |
Christianity | 22 | 0.01 |
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church in Iceland (Eþíópíska Tewahedo rétttrúnaðarkirkjan á Íslandi) |
Christianity | 22 | 0.01 |
Reborn Christian Church of God (Endurfædd kristin kirkja af Guði) |
Christianity | 21 | 0.01 |
Iceland Christian Nation (Ísland kristin þjóð) |
Christianity | 19 | 0.00 |
World Peace Association of Families (Heimsfriðarsamtök fjölskyldna) |
Christianity | 16 | 0.00 |
Ananda Marga (Ananda Marga) |
Hinduism | 10 | 0.00 |
New Avalon Centre (Nýja Avalon miðstöðin) |
Theosophy | 5 | 0.00 |
Vitund (Vitund) |
Spirituality | 3 | 0.00 |
Population | 387,758 | 100.00 |
History
9th–10th century: early Germanic settlement
When Iceland was first settled by
The first Icelanders, though accustomed to a society in which the monarch was essential for religious life, did not establish a new monarchy in the colony, but rather a yearly assembly of free men, the Althing.[6] The "things" were assemblies of free men who governed Germanic societies, and they were led by a holy kingship.[6] The Icelandic thing developed peculiar characteristics; in place of the loyalty to a holy king, the Icelanders established the loyalty to a law code, first composed by Úlfljót who studied Norwegian laws.[6]
Icelandic landowners (landnámsmenn
The religion was named Goðatrú or Ásatrú, "truth of the gods (the
10th–11th century: Christianisation
Apart from the Irish papar, Christianity had been present in Iceland from the beginning even among the Germanic settlers.
The adoption of Christianity — which at that time was still identical to the
Christian missionaries began to be active in Iceland by 980.
At this point, Olaf Tryggvason suspended Iceland's trade with Norway, which resulted in a concrete danger for Icelandic economy, and also threatened to execute Icelanders residing in Norway, who were for the most part sons and relatives of prominent goðar, as long as Iceland remained a pagan country.
The decision of the Althing was a turning point; theretofore, it was difficult for individuals to convert to Christianity, since it would have meant to abandon the traditions of one's own kin, and would have been seen as ættarspillar — that is to say, "destruction of kinship".[14] However, despite the official Christianisation, the old Germanic religion persisted for long time, as it is proven by the literature produced by Snorri Sturluson — he himself a Christian — and by other authors in the 13th century, who wrote the Prose Edda and the Poetic Edda.[15] After the conversion of the country, members of the goðorð often became Christian priests and bishops.[14] The first consecrated bishop in Iceland was Ísleif Gizursson, who was the bishop of Skálholt from 1057 to his death in 1080.[14] He is credited with having instituted a tithe system (sóknargjald) which made the Icelandic church financially independent and strengthened Christianity.[14]
16th century: Protestant Reformation
The last two Catholic bishops of Iceland were Øgmundur Pállson of Skálholt and Jón Arason of Hólar.[16] Jón was a poet of some importance and was married with many children, a usual thing among the clergy in Iceland.[16] The two bishops, who were not well versed in theology but were men of great power, were in conflict with one another and threatened open conflict.[16] At the Althing of 1526 they came with their own armed contingents, although they reconciled because of the threat posed by a new, common enemy, the spread of Lutheranism.[16]
Lutheran pamphlets were introduced in Iceland through trade with Germany.[17] In 1533, the Althing bade that "all shall continue in the Holy Faith and the Law of God, which God has given to us, and which the Holy Fathers have confirmed".[17] One of the first Icelandic Lutherans was Oddur Gottskálksson, who had converted to Lutheranism while living in continental Europe for many years.[17] When he went back to Iceland, he became the secretary of the bishop of Skálholt and translated the New Testament into the Icelandic language.[17]
The most important figure in early Icelandic Lutheranism was, however, Gissur Einarsson, who during a period of study in Germany learnt about the Reformation.[17] In 1536, he became assistant at the Skálholt bishopric, though he did not formally embrace Lutheranism yet.[17] When Lutheranism became the state religion of Denmark and Norway under King Christian III, the king tried to convert Iceland too.[17] In 1538, the "Church Ordinance" was put before the two bishops Øgmundur and Jón at the Althing as a royal invitation to convert to Lutheranism, but it was rejected.[17] Thereupon, Christian III ordered the dissolution of the monasteries in Iceland.[17] Bishop Øgmundur, now old and almost blind, chose Gissur Einarsson as his successor.[17] He was examined by theologians in Copenhagen and in 1540 the king appointed him as the superintendent of Skálholt.[17] Gissur was only 25 years old and it was difficult for him to maintain power, especially as he was opposed by the clergy and even by the old bishop.[17] A royal emissary was sent to uphold the ordinance, and Øgmundur was arrested and died on the way to Denmark.[17] The ordinance was accepted in Skálholt, but was rejected by Jón Arason in Hólar.[17] Bishop Gissur, who was ordained by the Danish bishop Peder Palladius, reorganised the church in his diocese according to Lutheran principles, including the suppression of Catholic ceremonies and the exhortation of priests to get married.[17] He entrusted Oddur Gottskálksson with the task of translating German sermons, and he himself translated parts of the Old Testament and the Church Ordinance.[17]
Gissur Einarsson died in 1548, and thereupon Jón Arason took possession of the Skálholt diocese, even though the clergy opposed him.[17] He also imprisoned Gissur's appointed successor.[17] Jón Arason was consequently outlawed by the king; he was arrested together with two of his sons, and all three were executed in November 1550.[17] In 1552, the Hólar diocese too accepted the Church Ordinance.[18] Institutional opposition to the Reformation had now vanished completely, so that church properties were secularised and churches and monasteries were plundered.[18] However, it took many decades for Lutheranism to become firmly established in Iceland.[18] Church manuals and hymnals were in bad Danish translations, and new schools had to be set up in cathedral towns in order to train the Lutheran clergy.[18] The Danish bishop Palladius was in charge of the development of the Icelandic Lutheran church in those early years.[18] The able and energetic Gudbrandur Thorláksson, bishop of Hólar from 1571 to 1627, devoted his energies in improving church literature, clergy training and community education.[18] In 1584, the first complete Icelandic translation of the Bible was published.[18]
20th–21st century: decline of Christianity and rise of new religions
Since the end of the 19th century, Iceland has been more open to new religious ideas than many other European countries.[19] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, religious life in Iceland, still mostly within the Christian establishment, was influenced by the spread of spiritualist beliefs.[20] Theosophy was introduced in Iceland around 1900, and in 1920 the Icelandic Theosophists formally organised themselves as an independent branch of the international Theosophical movement, though within the fold of the Lutheran belief and led by a Lutheran pastor, Séra Jakob Kristinsson.[21]
Since the late 20th century there has been a rapid diversification of religious life in the country, with the most notable phenomenon being a decline of Christianity (from 97.8% in 1990 to 65.55% in 2023
In the early 2010s, the Zuism trúfélag ("Faith Fellowship of Zuism") or Zuist Church was founded as an organisation of
Religions, philosophies and life stances
Christianity
In 2023, according to the official statistics provided by
At the same time,
A further 1.78% of the population were adherents of other Christian denominations, including
Baháʼí Faith
The Baháʼí Faith in Iceland was the religion of 0.08% of the population of Iceland in 2023, organised into the Baháʼí Community (Baháʼí samfélagið).[1] The Baháʼí Faith was introduced in 1924 by the American Amelia Collins — who was later recognised as a prominent Baháʼí Hand of the Cause —, and the first Icelander who converted to the religion was a woman named Hólmfríður Árnadóttir. The religion was recognised by the government in 1966, and a Baháʼí National Spiritual Assembly was elected in 1972. Iceland has the highest proportion in Europe of Baháʼí Local Spiritual Assemblies in relation to the total population of the country. The Danish scholar of religion Margit Warburg speculated, while discussing the relatively good establishment of the Baháʼí Faith in Iceland, that the Icelanders are culturally more open than other peoples to religious innovation.[30]
Buddhism
Heathenry
From the 1970s there has been a
Hinduism
As of 2023, there was a small community of
Islam
Judaism
Iceland has a small population of
Zuism
Zuism (Mesopotamian Neopaganism) is the religion of about 0.14% of the Icelanders.
Other beliefs, humanism and unaffiliation
According to official statistics yielded by
In 2023, a substantial part of the Icelandic population, that is to say 18.73%, were adherents of unspecified religions, philosophies or life stances not recognised in the Icelandic civil registry or did not declare either affiliation or unaffiliation with any religion, philosophy or life stance.[1] An additional 7.71% of the population were explicitly unaffiliated with any religion, philosophy or life stance.[1] A minority of Icelanders declared an affiliation with secular beliefs, namely, 1.39% declared that they belonged to the Icelandic Ethical Humanist Association (Siðmennt), which represents secular humanism and was officially recognised by the state in 2013, while 0.05% declared that they were affiliated to DíaMat, an organisation of dialectical materialism.[1]
Freedom of religion
In 2023, the country received the maximum score for religious freedom from Freedom House.[36]
Gallery
-
A Russian Orthodox church in Reykjavík.
-
Lutheran cathedral of Reykjavík.
-
Catholic church of Akureyri.
-
Building of theReykjavík Free Church in the foreground, and the Hallgrímskirkjain the background.
-
Building of the Theosophical Society in Reykjavík.
-
Interior of the Lutheran cathedral of Skálholt.
-
Wooden church in the Westfjords.
-
Stonen church in Hvalsnes, Reykjanes.
-
Turfenchurch in Víðimýri.
-
Modern church in Kirkjubæjarklaustur.
See also
- Christianisation of Scandinavia
- Religion in Norway
- Religion in Europe
Notes
- ^ state church of Iceland is the Evangelical Lutheran Church (Evangelíska lúterska kirkja), a Christian denomination, also known simply as the Church of Iceland or the National Church (Þjóðkirkjan).[1]
- ^ a b The category "other and unspecified" comprises citizens who declared to be affiliated with religions which are not recognised in the civil registry, or who did not declare either affiliation or unaffiliation with any religion.[1]
- ^ a b The category of the "unaffiliated" comprises citizens who declared that they are not affiliated with any religion.[1]
References
Citations
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab "Populations by religious and life stance organizations". Statistics Iceland. Archived from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
- ^ a b Lacy 2000, p. 166: "The Old Treaty, signed in 1262, that led to Iceland's being first under the Norwegian and later the Danish kings was such a milestone, as was the Reformation in 1550 whereby Lutheranism became, and remains, Iceland's state religion".
- ^ "Constitution of the Republic of Iceland (No. 33, 17 June 1944, as amended 30 May 1984, 31 May 1991, 28 June 1995 and 24 June 1999)". Government of Iceland. Archived from the original on 22 November 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2014. Section VI deals with religion.
Article 62: The Evangelical Lutheran Church shall be the State Church in Iceland and, as such, it shall be supported and protected by the State.
This may be amended by law.
Article 63: All persons have the right to form religious associations and to practice their religion in conformity with their individual convictions. Nothing may however be preached or practised which is prejudicial to good morals or public order.
Article 64: No one may lose any of his civil or national rights on account of his religion, nor may anyone refuse to perform any generally applicable civil duty on religious grounds.
Everyone shall be free to remain outside religious associations. No one shall be obliged to pay any personal dues to any religious association of which he is not a member.
A person who is not a member of any religious association shall pay to the University of Iceland the dues that he would have had to pay to such an association, if he had been a member. This may be amended by law.
- ^ a b c d e Sigurbjörnsson 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k D'Angelo 2016, p. 482.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Cusack 1998, p. 160.
- ^ a b c Byock 1988, p. 55.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Cusack 1998, p. 161.
- ^ a b Byock 1988, p. 138.
- ^ Cusack 1998, p. 168.
- ^ D'Angelo 2016, p. 481.
- ^ Jochens 1999.
- ^ a b c d D'Angelo 2016, p. 483.
- ^ a b c d Cusack 1998, p. 167.
- ^ Cusack 1998, pp. 162, 168.
- ^ a b c d Elton 1990, p. 154.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Elton 1990, p. 155.
- ^ a b c d e f g Elton 1990, p. 156.
- ^ a b c d e f Christiano, Swatos & Kivisto 2002, p. 331.
- ^ Swatos & Gissurarson 1997.
- ^ Fell 1999, p. 250.
- ^ a b Nash 2020, pp. 52–55.
- ^ Nash 2020, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Ágúst Arnar Ágústsson (24 October 2017). "Yfirlýsing frá Ágústi Arnari Ágústsssyni, forstöðumanni trúfélagsins Zuism". Zuism á Íslandi. Archived from the original on 20 December 2017.
- ^ "Amargi (Endurgreiðsla Sóknargjalda)". Zuism á Íslandi. Archived from the original on 29 December 2017.
- ^ Kjartan Kjartansson (8 April 2022). "Óljóst hvað verður um sóknargjöld Zuism". Vísir.is. Archived from the original on 26 June 2022.
- ^ Chenery, David M. "Diocese of Reykjavik, Dioecesis Reykiavikensis". Catholic Hierarchy. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
- ^ "Jon Sveinsson, SJ (Nonni)". Manresa, Jesuit Retreat House. Archived from the original on 17 February 2006. Retrieved 21 January 2006.
- ^ a b Gudnason 2021.
- ^ Hassall & Fazel 1998.
- ^ "Hvað er hindúismi?". Áttavitinn. 29 July 2013. Archived from the original on 4 October 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
- ^ Arnarsdóttir 2014.
- ^ a b c Bergsson 1998.
- ^ Short description of the Faith Fellowship of Zuism and of its creed on its websites:
- "About Zuism". Zuist Church. 2010. Archived from the original on 4 June 2012.
- "Kennisetningar Zuism". Zuism á Íslandi. Archived from the original on 16 January 2018.
- ^ Himmat Singh Khalsa (4 September 2013). "First Akhand Path in Iceland Completed". Sikh Dharma International. Archived from the original on 1 January 2023.
- ^ "Iceland: Freedom in the World 2022 Country Report". Freedom House.
Sources
- Arnarsdóttir, Eygló Svala (2014). "To a Mosque on a Magic Carpet". Iceland Review. 52 (1): 64–68.
- Bergsson, Snorri G. (1998). "Iceland and the Jewish Question until 1940". notendur.centrum.is. Archived from the original on 22 January 2008.
- Byock, Jesse L. (1988). Medieval Iceland: Society, Sagas, and Power. University of California Press. ISBN 0520054202.
- Christiano, Kevin J.; Swatos, William H.; Kivisto, Peter (2002). Sociology of Religion: Contemporary Developments. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 0759100357.
- Cusack, Carole M. (1998). Conversion Among the Germanic Peoples. A&C Black. ISBN 0304701556.
- D'Angelo, Francesco (2016). "Althing of 1000 and the Conversion of Iceland to Christianity". In Curta, Florin; Holt, Andrew (eds.). Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History. ABC-CLIO. pp. 481–483. ISBN 978-1610695664.
- Elton, Geoffrey Rudolph (1990). The Reformation, 1520-1559. The New Cambridge Modern History. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521345367.
- Fell, Michael (1999). And Some Fell Into Good Soil: A History of Christianity in Iceland. American University Studies: Theology and Religion. Vol. 201. P. Lang. ISBN 0820438812.
- Gudnason, Gerhard (18 May 2021). "Iceland". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints.
- Hassall, Graham; Fazel, Seena (1998). "100 Years of the Baháʼí Faith in Europe". Baháʼí Studies Review (8): 35–44.
- Hugason, Hjalti (2018). "Aðskilnaður ríkis og kirkju: Upphaf almennrar umræðu 1878–1915". Studia Theologica Islandica. 46 (2): 44–71.
- Jochens, Jenny (1999). "Late and Peaceful: Iceland's Conversion Through Arbitration in 1000". Speculum. 74 (74): 621–655. S2CID 162464020.
- Lacy, Terry G. (2000). Ring of Seasons: Iceland, Its Culture and History. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472086618.
- Nash, Alexander (2020). "Zuism: History and Introduction" (PDF). Central European Journal of Contemporary Religion. 4 (1). Prague: (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2022.
- Sigurbjörnsson, Sigurður Rósant (29 March 2016). "Fjöldi meðlima í trúfélögum og öðrum samanburðarhópum 1990–2016". Trúrýni – trúarbrögðin sneiðmynduð (analysis of the official data yolden[clarification needed] by Statistics Iceland). Archived from the original on 12 August 2017.
- Swatos, William H.; Gissurarson, Loftur Reimar (1997). Icelandic Spiritualism: Mediumship and Modernity in Iceland. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1412825776.