Draft:Apartheid South Africa
Submission declined on 22 July 2022 by Greenman (talk).
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Submission declined on 17 July 2021 by DoubleGrazing ( reliable sources. Reliable sources are required so that information can be verified. If you need help with referencing, please see Referencing for beginners and Citing sources. This draft's references do not show that the subject qualifies for a Wikipedia article . In summary, the draft needs multiple published sources that are:
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Submission declined on 30 April 2021 by Greenman ( Republic of South Africa (1961-1994). Since anyone can edit Wikipedia, you are welcome to add that information yourself. Thank you. Declined by Greenman 3 years ago. | ![]() |
Comment: Primary notability concern not addressed. Sources do not indicate that there was a "first republic", or that the republic ceased to exist in 1994. Greenman (talk) 19:06, 22 July 2022 (UTC)
Comment: 1) Firstly, the referencing is wholly inadequate: 15 citations in an article of this magnitude is nowhere near enough, leaving large parts unsupported.2) Secondly, please highlight clearly those sources which expressly discuss the concept of 'First Republic', so that the whole basis of this article can be verified, and notability established.3) Thirdly, the article is clearly unfinished, with several empty sections. DoubleGrazing (talk) 05:18, 17 July 2021 (UTC)
Comment: Have you discussed with others about the basis for the article yet? Greenman (talk) 23:35, 25 May 2021 (UTC)
Comment: The basis for this article is in question. The first line states that "The Republic of South Africa is predecessor to the present-day South Africa" which is not true - the Republic of South Africa still exists, although it did have a rather large change of government and system from 1994. I suggest first reaching consensus on Wikipedia:WikiProject South Africa and the South Africa page on where to integrate the contents here. Greenman (talk) 20:06, 30 April 2021 (UTC)
Union of South Africa (1948–1961) Republic of South Africa (1961–1994) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1948–1994 | |||||||||||||
Motto: parliamentary constitutional monarchy (1948-1961) Unitary parliamentary republic (1961-1984) Unitary presidential republic (1984–1994) | |||||||||||||
State President | |||||||||||||
• 1961–1967 (first) | C. R. Swart | ||||||||||||
• 1989–1994 (last) | F. W. de Klerk | ||||||||||||
Prime Minister | |||||||||||||
• 1961–1966 (first) | Hendrik Verwoerd | ||||||||||||
• 1978–1984 (last) | P. W. Botha | ||||||||||||
Legislature | Parliament (1948-1984) Tricameral Parliament (1984-1994) | ||||||||||||
Senate (dissolved 1981) | |||||||||||||
House of Assembly | |||||||||||||
History | |||||||||||||
• Apartheid starts | 1948 | ||||||||||||
31 May 1961 | |||||||||||||
31 May 1961 | |||||||||||||
26 August 1966 | |||||||||||||
26 March 1970 | |||||||||||||
3 September 1984 | |||||||||||||
21 March 1990 | |||||||||||||
17 March 1992 | |||||||||||||
27 April 1994 | |||||||||||||
27 April 1994 | |||||||||||||
Area | |||||||||||||
1961 | 2,045,320 km2 (789,700 sq mi) | ||||||||||||
Population | |||||||||||||
• 1961 | 18,216,000 | ||||||||||||
Currency | South African Pound (1948-1961) (1961–1994)South African rand | ||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||
Today part of | ![]() ![]() |
Apartheid South Africa, officially the Union of South Africa to 1961 and Republic of South Africa from 1961, was the former government of
The territory consisted of 4 British colonies that was unified into one country;
After the
Johannesburg was the largest city in the country while the executive capital located in Pretoria; legislative seat in Cape Town (Second largest city after Johannesburg]]; and Bloemfontein as the judicial seat. Since its transition to republic in 1961, South Africa has been ruled by white minorities and implemented the segregationist policy called apartheid which faced nationwide and international condemnation which triggered South African Border War and Internal resistance to apartheid movement. Most of the government Executive, Legislative, and Judicial branch has been dominated by white minorities. Until 1980, South Africa was one of two African nations under white minority rule along with Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) which later was transferred to black majority rule in 1980. Namibia was given independence later in 1990, ending the 75 years of South African occupation in the region. The racial segregation policy would come to an end in 1992 with a referendum in favor of abolishing the apartheid system and the first multi-racial election was held in 1994 with Nelson Mandela as winner and first black majority president in the country.
History
Background
The beginning of South Africa can be traced by by the
Throughout its history, South Africa has participated in both World Wars and Korean War. South Africa participated in
Republic Declaration
The call for
On 5 October 1960, Prime Minister
On 31 May 1961, The Republic of South Africa was declared.
Apartheid
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/DurbanSign1989.jpg/150px-DurbanSign1989.jpg)
South Africa implemented the segregationist system called
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Mandela_burn_pass_1960.jpg/150px-Mandela_burn_pass_1960.jpg)
After the removal of Dominion, Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd, who was staunch supporter of apartheid policy expanded the apartheid policy further calling it as "good neighbourliness policy". Due to his large role implementing apartheid policy, he was dubbed as "Architect of Apartheid". During his tenure, Verwoerd signed three legislative act;[12] Promotion of Bantu Self-government Act which marks the creation of Bantustan, Promotion of Bantu Self-government Act which allowed South African businesses to invest in Bantustan, and Extension of University Education Act which bar non-whites to enroll in certain universities. Verwoerd policies has met condemnation from the international community. The United Nations later passed the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1761 after Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld visit to Pretoria.[13] The United States and United Kingdom government implemented arms embargo as protest to the apartheid policy.[14][15][16]
Border War
End of Apartheid
Government and Politics
From 1961 to 1984, South Africa adopted
The legislative branch of the government was vested by the Parliament of South Africa which consist of House of Assembly and the Senate. The House of Assembly consist of 150 members and was elected for five years term with First-past-the-post voting. The vote was reserved for whites only with six members voted by White Namibians in South West Africa and four Coloureds voters from Cape Province. The assembly system has undergo several changes for three times, with the following changes were made later:
- Coloured representation was ended in 1968, leaving both the Senate and the House of Assembly representing white voters only.
- South West Africa ceased to be represented in Parliament from 1977.[17]
- The Senate was abolished in 1981, changing Parliament to a unicameral legislature
While the senate consists of eight people, consist of two representative from the provinces nominated by the state president. Four senators from South West Africa was also nominated by state president until 1977. A
Divisions
The First Republic of South Africa were divided into four provinces with one mandate territory of South West Africa that were governed as the de-facto "fifth province" of South Africa. Each provinces were administrated by Province Administrator appointed by the central government.
Province | Capital | Peak population | Location |
---|---|---|---|
Cape of Good Hope (1910–1994) | Cape Town | 6,125,335 | ![]() |
Natal (1910–1994) | Pietermaritzburg | 2,430,753 | ![]() |
Orange Free State (1910–1994) | Bloemfontein | 2,193,062 | ![]() |
Transvaal (1910–1994) | Pretoria | 9,491,265 | ![]() |
Mandates | Capital | Peak population | Location |
South-West Africa |
Windhoek | 1,415,000 | ![]() |
Bantustans
The origins of the Bantustans or “homelands” can be traced to the colonial conquest and rule which was imposed on the native Africans. Beginning with the
The first pieces of Bantustan legislation began with the
The Summary of the Report of the Commission for the Socio-Economic Development of the Bantu Areas within the Union of South Africa, commonly known as the Tomlinson Report, made it clear that the policy of separate development was premised on maintaining the ‘foundations on which European civilisation rests’ which ‘would vanish before the European himself disappeared in the absence of discrimination.’ [20] The entire basis of the apartheid system was focused on the maintenance of this European identity or ‘civilisation’ with warnings that dire consequences could occur if it was not ensured [21]. Following the Tomlinson Report, the 1959 Bantu Self-Government Act inaugurated a period of what was named: “grand apartheid” [22]. The act laid the foundation for the formation of the Bantustans, which were to be created based upon territorial division, the revival of chieftaincies, and separate development. The strategy of the South African government’s Bantustan program was centred on instilling ‘national unity’ and ‘national culture’ in each of the homelands, and in doing so, they attempted to forge linkages between the territories and all black South Africans. [23]. A process was later set in motion that saw four Bantustans being declared independent (Transkei, Ciskei, Venda, and Bophuthatswana) and six territories gaining limited self-determination (Gazankulu, KaNgwane, KwaNdebele, Lebowa, KwaZulu, and QwaQwa)[24].
The underdeveloped and fragmented Bantustans were frequently portrayed as being able to offer opportunities for the advancement of black people as well as being able to achieve ‘independence’. This gave a facade of legitimacy to white rule in the rest of South Africa [25]. The authority of Bantustan governments were limited and many of them were in subordination to the South African government. Major aspects of government such as finance, commerce, and security were operated by the South African government [26]. Likewise, all Bantustans relied on South Africa for 65-85% of their entire government's revenue and all senior administrative positions were held by white officials who were paid by the South African government [27]. Phatlane argues that by “introducing the concept of homeland independence, a new way of justifying the white monopoly power in the economic heartland of South Africa was being prepared... instead of justifying discrimination against blacks purely on grounds of race, it would now be done on the grounds that they were citizens of separate states” [28]. Under apartheid planning, the Bantustans experienced large economic neglect, underdevelopment, overcrowding, and forced resettlement [29]. The creation of the ethnically defined enclaves fulfilled the economic and political objectives for the apartheid government, one of which was enabling and maintaining the low-wage economy for the urban-industrial heartland of South Africa. These spaces became the sites of forced removals of established communities and their ‘dumping’ as surplus people in remote and barren rural slums. This was a product of social engineering which was a cornerstone in apartheid planning [30].
Agriculture was the primary economic activity of the Bantustans [31]. However, the main export of the Bantustans was the labour of its citizens. Able bodied males (and to a lesser extent, females) were drawn away from agriculture in the Bantustans towards employment in the designated white areas of South Africa [32]. The system of migrant labour provided the income by which citizens of Bantustans survived [33]. Furthermore, nearly all the mineral-rich parts of South Africa have been excised from the Bantustans, aside from large platinum mines in Bophuthatswana. However, mineral-rich parts of Bantustans are owned and operated by whites [34].
Decline in the national economy following international sanctions, as well as the costs related to upholding the Bantustan system placed more pressure on the government and further revealed the inherent contradictions of the policy of separate development [35]. In 1986, South African citizenship was restored to citizens of the Bantustans, which effectively ended the idea of separate development [36]. The continuing pressure faced by the apartheid system domestically and internationally, contributed towards the waning support for the apartheid policies in place, and led to the 1992 referendum on the dismantling of apartheid which white South Africans overwhelmingly voted in favour. All the Bantustans were later reincorporated back to South Africa prior to the 1994 democratic election [37].
Nominally independent Bantustans
Bantustan | Capital | Ethnic group | Self-government years |
Nominal independence years |
---|---|---|---|---|
![]() |
Umtata | Xhosa | 1963–1976 | 1976–1994 |
![]() |
|
Tswana | 1972–1977 | 1977–1994 |
![]() |
|
Venda | 1973–1979 | 1979–1994 |
![]() |
Xhosa | 1972–1981 | 1981–1994 |
Self-governing Bantustans
Bantustan | Capital | Tribe | Years |
---|---|---|---|
![]() |
Lebowakgomo (1974–1994) Seshego (provisionally, until 1974) |
Northern Sotho (Pedi)
|
1972–1994 |
![]() |
Giyani | Tsonga (Shangaan)
|
1973–1994 |
![]() |
Phuthaditjhaba (until 1974 called Witsieshoek) | Southern Sotho | 1974–1994 |
![]() |
Ulundi (1980–1994) Nongoma (provisionally, until 1980) |
Zulu | 1977–1994 |
![]() |
KwaMhlanga (1986-1994) Siyabuswa (provisionally, until 1986) |
Ndebele
|
1981–1994 |
![]() |
Schoemansdal (provisionally, until the mid-1980s)
|
Swazi | 1984–1994 |
Economy
South Africa have vast amount of mineral resources like old, diamond, coal, iron ore and platinum and also have very vast agricultural land. During the apartheid era, South Africa has faced multiple embargoes from the western countries, most notably the United States[38] and United Kingdom. The embargo has caused the South African manufacturers struggle to import their products overseas due to sanctions. It also caused the local business have to cater the local market in order to keep the economy running[39]
Military
Society and Culture
Censorship
The origins of the censorship of the press began in 1950 with the Suppression of Communism Act, which allowed the Minister of Justice to ban newspapers and magazines, many of which were not affiliated with the communism, but were simply against the apartheid regime.[40] Furthermore, the Minister of Justice could label people as ‘communists’ which allowed the government to restrict movement and lead to banning orders. This began the silencing of opponents of apartheid.[41]
Moreover, the South African Censorship Commission had been given authority to ban books, newspapers, and magazines. The Publications Control Board was able to ban any publication that was considered ‘undesirable.’ This mostly meant any publication may be banned if it undermined the race policy of South Africa. From 1960, more than 300 magazines and newspapers, as well as 20,000 books were suppressed by South African censorship.[42]
When the National Party came to power in 1948, the SABC began to function as a propaganda instrument for the South African government. The SABC became a government institution which was managed by Afrikaner nationalists[43] appointed by the State President[44] who instituted broadcasting policies through the lens of apartheid.[45] The SABC also controlled the radio and television programmes of the Bantustans in order to keep them within South Africa’s press censorship.[46]
The Afrikaans-language press were typically advocates of the government’s positions, while the English-language press were typically liberal opponent of apartheid.[47] The English-language press had a much better record at exposing human rights abuses than did the Afrikaans press, who never opposed the National Party or security forces in any important issue.[48] Due to this, the English-language press were frequent targets of infiltration by government agents whose goal was to disseminate disinformation and propaganda as well as spy on journalists.[49]
Censorship enormously restricted freedom of expression and freedom of press in South Africa. It was forbidden to write about the police and arrests of political prisoners; forbidden to write about the torture of detainees; forbidden to write about national security and the South African Defence Force, and following the State of Emergency in 1985, it was forbidden to quote opponents of the regime like the African National Congress.[50] Consequently, many newspapers adopted legal advisors in fear of prosecution and imprisonment.[51]
Religion
Role of Women
Education
Sport
Most western nations were initially against racial mixing in sport, but by the late 1960s, the South African government remained the lone advocate of racial segregation, as the countries racial policies overrode the core ideology of sport being for all. Ministers of the National Party argued that interracial contact in sport would increase social stress. Acting on their assumptions, the government ordered national sports federations to separate into African, Coloured, Indian, and White associations. Non-white sportspeople were allowed to compete abroad, but only the white athletes could earn Springbok honours and only were white officials able to represent South Africa in international federations. [53]
Some sports refused to separate into racially-based federations, and over time this would later coalesce into the non-racial sports movement. On rare occasions individual white athletes would test the limits of the apartheid policy. In 1961, cricketer John Waite led a white team against a non-white team. Waite’s team included Ali Bacher, who supported the principle of merit based selection irrespective of race, and was the creator of programmes to promote cricket in African townships. In 1962, H.R. Klopper, president of the whites-only South African National Olympic Committee, rejected segregation but government pressure forced him to rescind his comment. [54]
The first reforms made in sport came in 1968 when
In February 1990,
Sporting Boycotts
The 1973 South African rugby tour of New Zealand caused more protests from
Demographics
Foreign Relations
Africa
Asia
The apartheid government has maintained relations with 3 Eastern Asian nations, most particularly
Western World
After South Africa severed ties with the Commonwealth, South African relationship with the western world started to sour. The government of United Kingdom denounced the apartheid system that were practiced by the government and issued arms embargo.
Use of Bantustan leaders
The South African government had portrayed the Bantustan system to both Africa and the western hemisphere as an alternative to the progressive policies advocated by liberation movements such as the prominent
The availability of Bantustan leaders to become ambassadors of South Africa’s Bantustan program created a new dimension of South Africa’s foreign policy. For the first time African spokesmen are traveling abroad to advocate for the policies of the apartheid regime, as well as being able to gain admittance in influential circles in
International Condemnation
References
- ^ travelfilmarchive (8 November 2012). "The Union of South Africa, 1956" – via YouTube.
- ^ darren lennox (23 February 2017). "British Empire: The British Colony Of The Union Of South Africa 1956" – via YouTube.
- ^ Brian Bunting, Rise of the South African Reich, Chapter Nine, "South Africa's Nuremberg Laws"
- ^ South Africa: A War Won, Time, 9 June 1961
- ^ The Statesman's Year-Book 1975-76, J. Paxton, 1976, Macmillan, page 1289
- ^ "Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd". South African History Online. Retrieved 9 March 2013.
On 5 October 1960 a referendum was held in which White voters were asked "Do you support a republic for the Union?" — 52 percent voted 'Yes'.
- ^ South Africa & Apartheid, Robert W. Peterson, Facts on File, 1975, page 84
- ^ South Africa Act, 1909, Part V, sections 68 to 94.
- ^ The White Tribe of Africa, David Harrison, University of California Press, 1983, page 163
- ^ The Lion and the Springbok: Britain and South Africa Since the Boer War, Ronald Hyam, Peter Henshaw, Cambridge University Press, 2003, page 301
- ^ Justice of the Peace and Local Government Review, Volume 125, Justice of the Peace Limited, 1961, page 1875
- ^ "Apartheid Legislation in South Africa". Africanhistory.about.com. 13 April 2012. Retrieved 6 September 2012.
- ^ http://richardknight.homestead.com/files/armsembargo.htm
- ^ John Dugard, Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, New York: UN Office of Legal Affairs, 2013. Accessed 26 July 2015
- ^ International Defence and Aid Fund, The Apartheid War Machine, London, 1980.
- ISBN 1-85043-069-1
- Inter-Parliamentary-Union
- ^ The South African Bantustan programme: its domestic and international implications. United Nations Centre against Apartheid.
- ^ van der Merwe, Nicola S. (2017). Gambling in the Bophuthatswana Sun: Sun City and the Political Economy of a Bantustan Casino: 1965-1994 (MA). University of the Witwatersrand.
- ^ Summary of the Report of the Commission for the Socio-Economic Development of the Bantu Areas within the Union of South Africa. 1955.
- . Retrieved 2022-08-08.
- S2CID 146345481. Retrieved 2022-08-08.
- . Retrieved 2022-08-08.
- S2CID 146345481. Retrieved 2022-08-08.
- ^ Drummond, James H.; Rogerson, Christian M.; Drummond, Fiona J. "Adventure Tourism in the Apartheid Era: Skydiving in Mafikeng- Mmabatho". African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure: 580.
- ^ The South African Bantustan programme: its domestic and international implications. United Nations Centre against Apartheid.
- ^ The South African Bantustan programme: its domestic and international implications. United Nations Centre against Apartheid.
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- ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4.
- ^ Platzky, Laurine; Walker, Cherryl (1985). The Surplus People: Forced Removals in South Africa. Johannesburg: Ravan Press.
- ^ The South African Bantustan programme: its domestic and international implications. United Nations Centre against Apartheid.
- ^ Kaur, Abnash (1994). "White Prosperity with Cheap Black Labour". World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues: 48.
- ^ Kaur, Abnash (1994). "White Prosperity with Cheap Black Labour". World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues: 44.
- ^ The South African Bantustan programme: its domestic and international implications. United Nations Centre against Apartheid.
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- JSTOR 30113489. Retrieved 2022-08-08.
- ^ "Sanctions Against South Africa (1986)". United States Embassy. 1986.
- ^ "South Africa's Economic History". South African Market Insights. 20 June 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
- ^ Roskam, Karel (1989). 'South Africans may not know everything' (and that goes for foreigners too) – 'Zuidafrikanen mogen niet alles weten' (en buitenlanders ook niet). Netherlands Institute For Southern Africa. Omroep voor Radio Freedom.
- ^ Roskam, Karel (1989). 'South Africans may not know everything' (and that goes for foreigners too) – 'Zuidafrikanen mogen niet alles weten' (en buitenlanders ook niet). Netherlands Institute For Southern Africa. Omroep voor Radio Freedom.
- ^ Roskam, Karel (1989). 'South Africans may not know everything' (and that goes for foreigners too) – 'Zuidafrikanen mogen niet alles weten' (en buitenlanders ook niet). Netherlands Institute For Southern Africa. Omroep voor Radio Freedom.
- JSTOR 26778580.
- ^ Roskam, Karel (1989). 'South Africans may not know everything' (and that goes for foreigners too) – 'Zuidafrikanen mogen niet alles weten' (en buitenlanders ook niet). Netherlands Institute For Southern Africa. Omroep voor Radio Freedom.
- JSTOR 26778580.
- ^ Roskam, Karel (1989). 'South Africans may not know everything' (and that goes for foreigners too) – 'Zuidafrikanen mogen niet alles weten' (en buitenlanders ook niet). Netherlands Institute For Southern Africa. Omroep voor Radio Freedom.
- JSTOR 45318448.
- JSTOR 45318448.
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- ^ Roskam, Karel (1989). 'South Africans may not know everything' (and that goes for foreigners too) – 'Zuidafrikanen mogen niet alles weten' (en buitenlanders ook niet). Netherlands Institute For Southern Africa. Omroep voor Radio Freedom.
- ^ Roskam, Karel (1989). 'South Africans may not know everything' (and that goes for foreigners too) – 'Zuidafrikanen mogen niet alles weten' (en buitenlanders ook niet). Netherlands Institute For Southern Africa. Omroep voor Radio Freedom.
- JSTOR 25606167.
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- ^ Lapik, Richard E. International Seminar on the Eradication of Apartheid and in Support of the Struggle for Liberation in South Africa: Apartheid Sport and South Africa's Foreign Policy:1976. United Nations Centre against Apartheid. p. 4.
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- TIME, 19 January 1962
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- ^ Gerardy, Justine (21 June 2008). "Chinese have trod murky path as 'non-people'". IOL News. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
they had to get permission right down to the neighbours
- ^ Ho, Ufrieda (24 April 2015). "Alan Ho's death stirs hope out of tragedy". The M&G Online. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
Still, a family that wanted to move into a white suburb had to ask the permission of their neighbours – 10 houses to the front, 10 to the back and 10 on each side of the house they intended to call home.
- ^ Far Eastern Economic Review, 1964, page 518
- ^ Sanctions and Honorary Whites: Diplomatic Policies and Economic Realities in Relations Between Japan and South Africa, Masako Osada, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, page 94
- ^ A Matter of Honour: Being Chinese in South Africa, Yoon Jung Park, Lexington Books, 2008 page 159
- ^ "South Korea–South Africa Relations". The Embassy of the Republic of Korea to the Republic of South Africa. 6 April 2015. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
- ^ "Premier Sun visits four African countries". Taiwan Review. Government Information Office, Republic of China (Taiwan). 5 January 1980. Archived from the original on 30 December 2011.
- ^ The South African Bantustan programme: its domestic and international implications. United Nations Centre against Apartheid.
- ^ The South African Bantustan programme: its domestic and international implications. United Nations Centre against Apartheid.
- ^ The South African Bantustan programme: its domestic and international implications. United Nations Centre against Apartheid.
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