Iraqi Kurdistan

Coordinates: 36°55′N 44°2′E / 36.917°N 44.033°E / 36.917; 44.033
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This article is about the Kurdish region of Iraq. For the autonomous entity, see Kurdistan Region.

Approximate map of the Kurdish-populated region of Iraq
 
People
Population
  • Homeland
  • Kurdistan
  • Northern Kurdistan
    )
  • Eastern Kurdistan
    )
  • Southern Kurdistan
    )
  • Western Kurdistan
    )
  • Diaspora
History

Ancient

Karduchian dynasties

Corduene
Zabdicene
Cyrtians
Moxoene
  • Kayusids

Medieval

Modern
Culture
Languages
Kurdish languages
Religion

Iraqi Kurdistan or Southern Kurdistan

Eastern Kurdistan).[5][6] Much of the geographical and cultural region of Iraqi Kurdistan is part of the Kurdistan Region (KRI), an autonomous region recognized by the Constitution of Iraq.[7] As with the rest of Kurdistan, and unlike most of the rest of Iraq, the region is inland and mountainous.[8]

Etymology

Erbil, capital of Kurdistan Region

The exact origins of the name Kurd are unclear. The suffix -stan is an Iranian term for region. The literal translation for Kurdistan is "Land of Kurds".

The name was also formerly spelled Curdistan.[9][10] One of the ancient names of Kurdistan is Corduene.[11][12]

Geography

See also:
Geography of Kurdistan
Lake Dukan
Greater Zab River
near Erbil
A canyon near the northern city of Rawandiz

Iraqi Kurdistan is largely mountainous, with the highest point being a 3,611 m (11,847 ft) point known locally as

Qandil mountains. There are many rivers running through the region, which is distinguished by its fertile lands, plentiful water, and picturesque nature. The Great Zab and the Little Zab flow east–west in the region. The Tigris river enters Iraqi Kurdistan from Turkish Kurdistan
.

The mountainous nature of Iraqi Kurdistan, the difference of temperatures in its various parts, and its numerous bodies of water make it a land of agriculture and tourism. The largest lake in the region is

plains vegetated by sclerophyll scrubland.[citation needed
]

Climate

Mediterranean vegetation
.

Due to its latitude and altitude, Iraqi Kurdistan is cooler and much wetter than the rest of Iraq. Most areas in the region fall within the

semi-arid
(BSh).

Average summer temperatures range from 35 °C (95 °F) in the cooler northernmost areas to blistering 40 °C (104 °F) in the southwest, with lows around 21 °C (70 °F) to 24 °C (75 °F). Winters, however, are dramatically cooler than the rest of Iraq, with highs averaging between 9 °C (48 °F) and 11 °C (52 °F) and with lows hovering around 3 °C (37 °F) in some areas and freezing in others, dipping to −2 °C (28 °F) and 0 °C (32 °F) on average.[citation needed]

Among other cities in the climate table below,

snowfall occasionally in the winter, and frost is common. There is a seasonal lag in some places in summer, with temperatures peaking around August and September[citation needed
].

Climate data for Erbil
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 20
(68) 		27
(81) 		30
(86) 		34
(93) 		42
(108) 		44
(111) 		48
(118) 		49
(120) 		45
(113) 		39
(102) 		31
(88) 		24
(75) 		49
(120)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 12.4
(54.3) 		14.2
(57.6) 		18.1
(64.6) 		24.0
(75.2) 		31.5
(88.7) 		38.1
(100.6) 		42.0
(107.6) 		41.9
(107.4) 		37.9
(100.2) 		30.7
(87.3) 		21.2
(70.2) 		14.4
(57.9) 		27.2
(81.0)
Daily mean °C (°F) 7.4
(45.3) 		8.9
(48.0) 		12.4
(54.3) 		17.5
(63.5) 		24.1
(75.4) 		29.7
(85.5) 		33.4
(92.1) 		33.1
(91.6) 		29.0
(84.2) 		22.6
(72.7) 		15.0
(59.0) 		9.1
(48.4) 		20.2
(68.3)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 2.4
(36.3) 		3.6
(38.5) 		6.7
(44.1) 		11.1
(52.0) 		16.7
(62.1) 		21.4
(70.5) 		24.9
(76.8) 		24.4
(75.9) 		20.1
(68.2) 		14.5
(58.1) 		8.9
(48.0) 		3.9
(39.0) 		13.2
(55.8)
Record low °C (°F) −4
(25) 		−6
(21) 		−1
(30) 		3
(37) 		6
(43) 		10
(50) 		13
(55) 		17
(63) 		11
(52) 		4
(39) 		−2
(28) 		−2
(28) 		−6
(21)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 111
(4.4) 		97
(3.8) 		89
(3.5) 		69
(2.7) 		26
(1.0) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		12
(0.5) 		56
(2.2) 		80
(3.1) 		540
(21.2)
Average rainy days 9 9 10 9 4 1 0 0 1 3 6 10 62
Average snowy days 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Average
relative humidity
(%) 		74.5 70 65 58.5 41.5 28.5 25 27.5 30.5 43.5 60.5 75.5 50.0
Source 1: Climate-Data.org,[13] My Forecast for records, humidity, snow and precipitation days[14]
Source 2: What's the Weather Like.org,[15] Erbilia[16]
Climate data for
Amadiya
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 6.2
(43.2) 		7.8
(46.0) 		12.1
(53.8) 		17.8
(64.0) 		25.1
(77.2) 		31.9
(89.4) 		36.3
(97.3) 		36.2
(97.2) 		32.2
(90.0) 		24.4
(75.9) 		15.4
(59.7) 		8.4
(47.1) 		21.2
(70.1)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −2.4
(27.7) 		−1.3
(29.7) 		2.4
(36.3) 		7.2
(45.0) 		12.5
(54.5) 		17.4
(63.3) 		21.4
(70.5) 		20.9
(69.6) 		16.8
(62.2) 		10.9
(51.6) 		5.0
(41.0) 		0.0
(32.0) 		9.2
(48.6)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 126
(5.0) 		176
(6.9) 		156
(6.1) 		128
(5.0) 		56
(2.2) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		1
(0.0) 		32
(1.3) 		96
(3.8) 		126
(5.0) 		897
(35.3)
Average precipitation days 7 6 10 8 4 0 0 0 1 7 7 10 60
Source 1: World Weather Online (precipitation days)[17]
Source 2: Climate-Data (temperatures and rainfall amount)[18]

Economy

The provinces of Duhok, Erbil and Sulaymanyah are rich in agricultural lands. Wheat and other cereals are grown there.

irrigation systems in place.[19] Tourism is another branch which draws the attention of the KRI,[20] which achieved the declaration of Erbil as the Tourism Capital by the Arab Council of Tourism in 2014.[21]

History

See also: History of the Kurds

Pre-Islamic period

In prehistoric times, the region was home to a

Tell Hassuna
, the centre of the Hassuna culture, c. 6000 BCE.

In Early and Middle Bronze Age the region was geographically known as

Urbilum, and Kurda.[26][27]

In early 2nd millennium the region was ruled by the kingdom of Kurda[28][29] except for two decades in 18th century BCE when it was conquered by the Amorite Shamshi Adad[30][31] and was incorporated into the Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia.[32][33] In 1760s BCE the kingdom of Kurda faced an invasion by Elam and Eshnunna during the Babylonian-Elam war and the kingdom eventually sided with Mari and Babylon.[34][35][36][37]

In 16th century BCE the

Ishtar.[49] The region was partially under the rule of Urartu and the kingdom of Musasir in early 1st millennium BCE.[50] Modern Rawandiz district was a religious center of the Urartians.[50]

The Medes conquered the region in 7th century BCE. Later it came under the rule of the Achaemenids and remained as part of the satrapy of Media.

Sassanian Empire in 380 AD and it was renamed to Nodshēragān.[58] The region was gradually converted to Christianity between 1st and 5th centuries and Erbil became the seat of the metropolitan of Hadhyab of the Church of the East[59] and it was divided into several bishoprics namely Marga, Beth Garmai, Beth Qardu, Beth MahQard, Beth BihQard, Beth Nuhadra and Shahr-Qard. In Syriac the region was commonly called Beth Qardwaye.[60][61][62]

Islamic period

See also: Spread of Islam among Kurds
vilayets of Van and Mossoul, 1899. Modern Iraqi Kurdistan is covered by the Mosul vilayet (green), which is divided into the sanjaks of Mossoul (Mosul), Kerkouk (Kirkuk and Erbil), and Souleimanié (Sulaymaniyah
). To the east is Persia and south is the vilayet of Bagdad.
Ethnographical Map of the contested territory, compiled by the Commission according to the latest statistics drawn up by the Government of Iraq (1922–1924), League of Nations. Green shows the Kurdish population in the region, while yellow is used for Arabs and purple for Yazidis

The region was conquered by

Safavids in the earliest 16th century.[citation needed
]

Between the 16th and 17th century the area nowadays known as Iraqi Kurdistan, (formerly ruled by three principalities of

Afsharids led by Nader Shah. Following Nader's death in 1747, Ottoman suzerainty was reimposed, and in 1831, direct Ottoman rule was established which lasted until World War I, when the Ottomans were defeated by the British.[citation needed
]

Kurdish revolts under British control

Mahmud Barzanji was the leader of a series of Kurdish uprisings against the British Mandate of Iraq.

During World War I, the British and French divided

Iraq. Parts of the Ottoman Empire on the Arabian Peninsula were eventually taken over by Saudi Arabia and Yemen.[citation needed
]

Kingdom of Kurdistan in 1923

In 1922, Britain restored Shaikh Mahmud Barzanji to power, hoping that he would organize the Kurds to act as a buffer against the Turks, who had territorial claims over Mosul and Kirkuk. However, defiant to the British, in 1922 Shaikh Mahmud declared a Kurdish Kingdom with himself as king. It took two years for the British to bring Kurdish areas into submission, while Shaikh Mahmud found refuge in an unknown location.[citation needed]

In 1930, following the announcement of the admission of Iraq to the League of Nations, Shaikh Mahmud started a third uprising which was suppressed with British air and ground forces.[66][67]

By 1927, the

Barzani clan had become vocal supporters of Kurdish rights in Iraq. In 1929, the Barzani demanded the formation of a Kurdish province in northern Iraq. Emboldened by these demands, in 1931 Kurdish notables petitioned the League of Nations to set up an independent Kurdish government. In late 1931, Ahmed Barzani initiated a Kurdish rebellion against Iraq, and though defeated within several months, the movement gained a major importance in the Kurdish struggle later on, creating the ground for such a notable Kurdish rebel as Mustafa Barzani.[citation needed
]

During World War II, the power vacuum in Iraq was exploited by the Kurdish tribes and under the leadership of Mustafa Barzani a rebellion broke out in the north, effectively gaining control of Kurdish areas until 1945, when Iraqis could once again subdue the Kurds with British support. Under pressure from the Iraqi government and the British, the most influential leader of the clan, Mustafa Barzani was forced into exile in Iran in 1945. Later he moved to the Soviet Union after the collapse of the Republic of Mahabad in 1946.[68][69]

Barzani Revolt (1960–1970)

Main article: First Iraqi–Kurdish War
The Barzani revolt, June 1932

After the

Abdul Karim Qasim to return from exile, where he was greeted with a hero's welcome. As part of the deal arranged between Qasim and Barzani, Qasim had promised to give the Kurds regional autonomy in return for Barzani's support for his policies. The Provisional Constitution described Iraq being included in the Arab world but saw the Kurds as partners within an Iraqi statehood and the coat of arms included a Kurdish dagger besides the Arab sword.[70] Meanwhile, during 1959–1960, Barzani became the head of the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP), which was granted legal status in 1960. By early 1960, it became apparent that Qasim would not follow through with his promise of regional autonomy. As a result, the KDP began to agitate for regional autonomy. In the face of growing Kurdish dissent, as well as Barzani's personal power, Qasim began to incite the Barzanis historical enemies, the Baradost and Zebari tribes, which led to intertribal warfare throughout 1960 and early 1961.[citation needed
]

Abd al-Karim Qasim

By February 1961, Barzani had successfully defeated the pro-government forces and consolidated his position as leader of the Kurds. At this point, Barzani ordered his forces to occupy and expel government officials from all Kurdish territory. This was not received well in Baghdad, and the Third Kurdish Teachers Congress was cancelled and Qasim even denied that "Kurds" constituted an own nation.[70] Qasim began to prepare for a military offensive against the north to return government control of the region. Meanwhile, in June 1961, the KDP issued a detailed ultimatum to Qasim outlining Kurdish grievances, demanding that the Kurdish language would become an official language in Kurdish majority regions.[70] Qasim ignored the Kurdish demands and continued his planning for war.[citation needed]

It was not until September 10, when an Iraqi army column was ambushed by a group of Kurds, that the Kurdish revolt truly began. In response to the attack, Qasim lashed out and ordered the

Iraqi Army, which he purposely failed to adequately arm (in fact, Qasim implemented a policy of ammunition rationing), Qasim's government was not able to subdue the insurrection. This stalemate irritated powerful factions within the military and is said to be one of the main reasons behind the Ba'athist coup against Qasim in February 1963. In November 1963, after considerable infighting amongst the civilian and military wings of the Ba'athists, they were ousted by Abdul Salam Arif in a coup. Then, after another failed offensive, Arif declared a ceasefire in February 1964 which provoked a split among Kurdish urban radicals on one hand and Peshmerga (Freedom fighters) forces led by Barzani on the other.[citation needed
]

Barzani agreed to the ceasefire and fired the radicals from the party. Following the unexpected death of Arif, whereupon he was replaced by his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif, the Iraqi government launched a last-ditch effort to defeat the Kurds. This campaign failed in May 1966, when Barzani forces thoroughly defeated the Iraqi Army at the Battle of Mount Handrin, near Rawandiz. At this battle, it was said that the Kurds slaughtered an entire brigade.[71][72] Recognizing the futility of continuing this campaign, Rahamn Arif announced a 12-point peace program in June 1966, which was not implemented due to the overthrow of Rahman Arif in a 1968 coup by the Ba'ath Party.[citation needed]

The Ba'ath government started a campaign to end the Kurdish insurrection, which stalled in 1969. This can be partly attributed to the internal power struggle in Baghdad and also tensions with Iran. Moreover, the Soviet Union pressured the Iraqis to come to terms with Barzani. A peace plan was announced in March 1970 and provided for broader Kurdish autonomy. The plan also gave Kurds representation in government bodies, to be implemented in four years.[73] Despite this, the Iraqi government embarked on an Arabization program in the oil rich regions of Kirkuk and Khanaqin in the same period.[74]

In the following years, Baghdad government overcame its internal divisions and concluded a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union in April 1972 and ended its isolation within the Arab world. On the other hand, Kurds remained dependent on the Iranian military support and could do little to strengthen their forces.[citation needed]

Second Kurdish Iraqi War Algiers Agreement

Main article: Second Iraqi–Kurdish War
Kurdistan Autonomous Region in 1975

In 1973, the US made a secret agreement with the Shah of Iran to begin covertly funding Kurdish rebels against Baghdad through the

Houari Boumediene, Iran and Iraq reached a comprehensive settlement in March 1975 known as the Algiers Pact.[76] The agreement left the Kurds helpless and Tehran cut supplies to the Kurdish movement. Barzani went to Iran with many of his supporters. Others surrendered en masse and the rebellion ended after a few days.[citation needed
]

As a result, the Iraqi government extended its control over the northern region after 15 years and in order to secure its influence, started an Arabization program by moving Arabs to the vicinity of oil fields in northern Iraq, particularly those around Kirkuk, and other regions, which were populated by Turkmen, Kurds and Christians.[77] The repressive measures carried out by the government against the Kurds after the Algiers agreement led to renewed clashes between the Iraqi Army and Kurdish guerrillas in 1977. In 1978 and 1979, 600 Kurdish villages were burned down and around 200,000 Kurds were deported to the other parts of the country.[78]

Arabization campaign and PUK insurgency

Main articles: PUK insurgency and Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq

The

Mandeans), in line with settler colonialist policies, from the 1960s to the early 2000s, in order to shift the demographics of North Iraq towards Arab domination. The Baath party under Saddam Hussein engaged in active expulsion of minorities from the mid-1970s onwards.[79] In 1978 and 1979, 600 Kurdish villages were burned down and around 200,000 Kurds were deported to the other parts of the country.[78]

The campaigns took place during the

Ba'athist regime. The Baathist policies motivating those events are sometimes referred to as "internal colonialism",[80] described by Dr. Francis Kofi Abiew as a "Colonial 'Arabization'" program, including large-scale Kurdish deportations and forced Arab settlement in the region.[81]

Iran–Iraq War and Anfal Campaign

See also:
Kurdish rebellion of 1983
Graves of the Halabja chemical attack victims
Iraqi Kurds fleeing to Turkey in April 1991, during the Gulf War

During the

which resulted in thousands of deaths
. The
Kurdish people
in Iraq.

The second and more extensive and widespread wave began from March 29, 1987, until April 23, 1989, when the Iraqi army under the command of

Qala Dizeh (population 70,000) was completely destroyed by the Iraqi army. The campaign also included Arabization of Kirkuk, a program to drive Kurds and other ethnic groups out of the oil-rich city and replace them with Arab settlers from central and southern Iraq.[83]

Autonomous period

After the Persian Gulf War

Even though autonomy had been agreed in 1970, the local population did not enjoy any democratic freedom, facing similar conditions to the rest of Iraq. Things began to change after the 1991 uprising against Saddam Hussein at the end of the Persian Gulf War. The United Nations Security Council Resolution 688 gave birth to a safe haven following international concern for the safety of Kurdish refugees. The U.S. and the Coalition established a No Fly Zone over a large part of northern Iraq (see Operation Provide Comfort),[84] however, it left out Sulaymaniyah, Kirkuk and other important Kurdish populated regions. Bloody clashes between Iraqi forces and Kurdish troops continued and, after an uneasy and shaky balance of power was reached, the Iraqi government fully withdrew its military and other personnel from the region in October 1991 allowing Iraqi Kurdistan to function de facto independently. The region was to be ruled by the two principal Kurdish parties; the Kurdish Democratic Party (KDP) and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). The region also has its own flag and national anthem.[citation needed]

At the same time, Iraq imposed an economic blockade over the region, reducing its oil and food supplies.

embargo: one imposed by the United Nations on Iraq and one imposed by Saddam Hussein on their region. The severe economic hardships caused by the embargoes fueled tensions between the two dominant political parties, the KDP and the PUK, over control of trade routes and resources.[86] Relations between the PUK and the KDP started to become dangerously strained from September 1993 after rounds of amalgamations occurred between parties.[87]

After 1996, 13% of the Iraqi oil sales were allocated for Iraqi Kurdistan and this led to relative prosperity in the region.[88] In return, the Kurds under KDP enabled Saddam to establish an oil smuggling route through territory controlled by the KDP, with the active involvement of senior Barzani family members. The taxation of this trade at the crossing point between Saddam's territory and Kurdish controlled territory and then into Turkey, along with associated service revenue, meant that whoever controlled Dohuk and Zakho had the potential to earn several million dollars a week.[89] Direct United States mediation led the two parties to a formal ceasefire in what was termed the Washington Agreement in September 1998. It is also argued that the Oil-for-Food Programme from 1997 onward had an important effect on cessation of hostilities.[90]

Kurdish Federation in 1998

During and after US-led invasion

Iraqi Kurds played an important role in the Iraq War. Kurdish parties joined forces against the Iraqi government during the war in Spring 2003. Kurdish military forces, known as Peshmerga, played an important role in the overthrow of the Iraqi government;[91] however, Kurds have been reluctant to send troops into Baghdad since then, preferring not to be dragged into the sectarian struggle that dominates much of Iraq.[92]

A new constitution of Iraq was established in 2005, defining Iraq as a federalist state consisting of Regions and Governorate's. The Kurdistan region includes the Governorate Erbil, Sulaymaniyah and Duhok.[93] It recognized both the Kurdistan Region and all laws passed by the KRG since 1992. There is provision for Governorates to create, join or leave Regions. However, as of late 2015, no new Regions have been formed, and the KRG remains the only regional government within Iraq.[citation needed]

PUK leader Jalal Talabani was elected President of the new Iraqi administration, while KDP leader Masoud Barzani became President of the Kurdistan Regional Government.[94]

Following US withdrawal

Further information:
Disputed territories of Northern Iraq and 2017 Kurdistan Region independence referendum
Disputed areas in Iraq prior to the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive
  Disputed and part of the Kurdish Regional Government since 1991.
  Disputed and under the control of central government.

Tensions between Iraqi Kurdistan and the central Iraqi government mounted through 2011–2012 on the issues of power sharing, oil production and territorial control. In April 2012, the president of Iraq's semi-autonomous northern Kurdish region demanded that officials agree to their demands or face the prospect of secession from Baghdad by September 2012.[95]

In September 2012, the Iraqi government ordered the KRG to transfer its powers over the Peshmerga to the central government. Relations became further strained by the formation of a new command center (Tigris Operation Command) for Iraqi forces to operate in a disputed area over which both Baghdad and the

Kurdistan Regional Government claim jurisdiction.[96] On 16 November 2012 a military clash between the Iraqi forces and the Peshmerga resulted in one person killed.[96] CNN reported that two people were killed (one of them an Iraqi soldier) and ten wounded in clashes at the Tuz Khurmato town.[97]

As of 2014, Iraqi Kurdistan is in dispute with the Federal Iraqi government on the issues of territorial control, export of oil and budget distribution and is functioning largely outside Baghdad's control. With the escalation of the

Iraqi crisis and fears of Iraq's collapse, Kurds have increasingly debated the issue of independence. During the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive, Iraqi Kurdistan seized the city of Kirkuk and the surrounding area, as well as most of the disputed territories in Northern Iraq. On 1 July 2014, Masoud Barzani announced that "Iraq's Kurds will hold an independence referendum within months."[98] After previously opposing the independence for Iraqi Kurdistan, Turkey later gave signs that it could recognize an independent Kurdish state.[98][99] On 11 July 2014, KRG forces seized control of the Bai Hassan and Kirkuk oilfields, prompting a condemnation from Baghdad and a threat of "dire consequences" if the oilfields were not relinquished back to Iraq's control.[100]

Pro-independence rally in Erbil in September 2017

In September, Kurdish leaders decided to postpone the referendum so as to focus on the fight against ISIL.[101] In November, Ed Royce, Chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the United States House of Representatives, introduced legislation to arm the Kurds directly, rather than continue working through the local governments.[102]

In August 2014, the US began a

campaign of airstrikes in Iraq, in part to protect Kurdish areas such as Erbil from the militants.[103]

In February 2016, Kurdish president Barzani stated once again that "Now the time is ripe for the people of Kurdistan to decide their future through a referendum", supporting an independence referendum and citing similar referendums in Scotland, Catalonia and Quebec.[104] On March 23, Barzani officially declared that Iraqi Kurdistan will hold the referendum some time "before October" of that year.[105] On April 2, 2017, the two governing parties released a joint statement announcing they would form a joint committee to prepare for a referendum to be held on 25 September.[106]

The 2017 Kurdistan Region independence referendum took place on September 25, with 92.73% voting in favor of independence.[107] This triggered a military operation in which the Iraqi government retook control of Kirkuk and surrounding areas,[108] and forced the KRG to annul the referendum.[109] Scholars have argued that the retaking of Kirkuk, a PUK stronghold, and the loss of other territory to Iraq, has actually consolidated the power of the Barzani family and the KDP, who remain in power.[110]

Culture

Main articles:
Iraqi culture and Kurdish culture

Kurdish culture is a group of distinctive cultural traits practiced by Kurdish people. The Kurdish culture is a legacy from the various ancient peoples who shaped modern Kurds and their society, but primarily Iranian. Among their neighbours, the Kurdish culture is closest to Persian culture. For example, they celebrate

Newroz as the new year day, which is celebrated on March 21. It is the first day of the month of Xakelêwe in Kurdish calendar and the first day of spring.[111]

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External links

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Iraqi Kurdistan.


36°55′N 44°2′E / 36.917°N 44.033°E / 36.917; 44.033

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