Ethics
Ethics is the philosophical study of moral phenomena. Also called moral philosophy, it investigates normative questions about what people ought to do or which behavior is morally right. The main branches of ethics include normative ethics, applied ethics, and metaethics.
Normative ethics aims to find general principles that govern how people should act. According to
Ethics is closely connected to
The
Definition
Ethics, also referred to as moral philosophy, is the study of moral phenomena. It is one of the main branches of
Morality is about what people ought to do rather than what they actually do, what they want to do, or what
The English word ethics has its roots in the Ancient Greek word êthos (ἦθος) meaning "character, personal disposition". This word gave rise to the Ancient Greek word ēthikós (ἠθικός), which was translated into Latin as ethica and entered the English language in the 15th century through the Old French term éthique.[6] The term morality originates in the Latin word moralis, meaning manners and character. It was introduced into the English language through the Old French term moralité.[7]
The terms "ethics" and "morality" are usually used interchangeably but some philosophers distinguish between the two. According to one view, morality focuses on what moral obligations people have while ethics is broader and includes ideas about what is good and how to lead a meaningful life. Another difference is that codes of conduct in specific areas, such as business and environment, are usually termed "ethics" rather than morality, as in business ethics and environmental ethics.[8]
Normative ethics
Normative ethics is the philosophical study of ethical conduct and investigates the fundamental principles of
Theories in normative ethics state how people should act or what kind of behavior is correct. They do not aim to describe how people normally act, what moral beliefs ordinary people have, how these beliefs change over time, or what ethical codes are upheld in certain social groups. These topics belong to descriptive ethics and are studied in fields like anthropology, sociology, and history rather than normative ethics.[12]
Some systems of normative ethics arrive at a single principle covering all possible cases. Others encompass a small set of basic rules that address all or at least the most important moral considerations.[13] One difficulty for systems with several basic principles is that these principles may conflict with each other in some cases and lead to ethical dilemmas.[14]
Distinct theories in normative ethics suggest different principles as the foundation of morality. The three most influential schools of thought are consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics.[15] These schools are usually presented as exclusive alternatives but depending on how they are defined, they can overlap and do not necessarily exclude one another.[16] In some cases, they differ in which acts they see as right or wrong. In other cases, they recommend the same course of action but provide different justifications for why it is right.[17]
Consequentialism
Consequentialism, also referred to as teleological ethics,[18][a] says that morality depends on consequences. According to the most common view, an act is right if it brings about the best future. This means that there is no alternative course of action that has better consequences.[20] A key aspect of consequentialist theories is that they provide a characterization of what is good and then define what is right in terms of what is good.[21] For example, classical utilitarianism says that pleasure is good and that the action leading to the most overall pleasure is right.[22]
Consequentialists usually understand the consequences of an action in a very wide sense that includes the totality of its effects. This is based on the idea that actions make a difference in the world by bringing about a causal chain of events that would not have existed otherwise.[23] A core intuition behind consequentialism is that what matters is not the past but the future and that it should be shaped to achieve the best possible outcome.[24]
The act itself is usually not seen as part of the consequences. This means that if an act has intrinsic value or disvalue, it is not included as a relevant factor. Some consequentialists try to avoid this complication by including the act itself as part of the consequences. A related approach is to characterize consequentialism not in terms of consequences but in terms of outcome with outcome being defined as the act together with its consequences.[25]
Most forms of consequentialism are agent-neutral. This means that the value of consequences is assessed from a neutral perspective, that is, acts should have consequences that are good in general and not just good for the agent. It is controversial whether agent-relative moral theories, like ethical egoism, should be considered as types of consequentialism.[26]
Types
There are many different types of consequentialism. They differ from each other based on what type of entity they evaluate, what consequences they take into consideration, and how they determine the value of consequences.
Many types assess the value of consequences based on whether they promote happiness or suffering. But there are also alternative evaluative principles, such as desire satisfaction, autonomy, freedom, knowledge, friendship, beauty, and self-perfection.[29] Some forms of consequentialism hold that there is only a single source of value.[30] The most prominent among them is utilitarianism, which states that the moral value of acts only depends on the pleasure they cause.[31] An alternative approach says that there are many different sources of value, which all contribute to one overall value.[30] Traditionally, consequentialists were only concerned with the sum total of value or the aggregate good. In the 20th century, alternative views were developed that additionally consider the distribution of value. One of them states that an equal distribution of goods is better than an unequal distribution even if the aggregate good is the same.[32]
There are disagreements about what consequences should be assessed. An important distinction is between act and rule consequentialism. According to act consequentialism, the consequences of an act determine its moral value. This means that there is a direct relation between the consequences of an act and its moral value. Rule consequentialism, by contrast, holds that an act is right if it follows a certain set of rules. Rule consequentialism determines the best rules by considering their outcomes at a community level. People should follow the rules that lead to the best consequences when everyone in the community follows them. This implies that the relation between an act and its consequences is indirect. For example, if not lying is one of the best rules, then according to rule consequentialism, a person should not lie even in specific cases where lying would lead to better consequences.[33]
Another disagreement is between actual and expected consequentialism. According to the traditional view, only the actual consequences of an act affect its moral value. One difficulty of this view is that many consequences cannot be known in advance. This means that in some cases, even well-planned and intentioned acts are morally wrong if they inadvertently lead to negative outcomes. An alternative perspective states that what matters are not the actual consequences but the expected consequences. This view takes into account that when deciding what to do, people have to rely on their limited knowledge of the total consequences of their actions. According to this view, a course of action has positive moral value despite leading to an overall negative outcome if it had the highest expected value, for example, because the negative outcome could not be anticipated or was unlikely.[34]
A further difference is between maximizing and satisficing consequentialism. According to maximizing consequentialism, only the best possible act is morally permitted. This means that acts with positive consequences are wrong if there are alternatives with even better consequences. One criticism of maximizing consequentialism is that it demands too much by requiring that people do significantly more than they are socially expected to. For example, if the best action for someone with a good salary would be to donate 70% of their income to charity, it would be morally wrong for them to only donate 65%. Satisficing consequentialism, by contrast, only requires that an act is "good enough" even if it is not the best possible alternative. According to this view, it is possible to do more than one is morally required to do.[35][b]
Mohism in ancient Chinese philosophy is one of the earliest forms of consequentialism. It argues that political action should promote justice as a means to increase the welfare of the people.[37]
Utilitarianism
The most well-known form of consequentialism is utilitarianism. In its classical form, it is an act consequentialism that sees
Classical utilitarianism was initially formulated by
Deontology
Deontology assesses the moral rightness of actions based on a set of norms or principles. These norms describe the requirements that all actions need to follow.[43] They may include principles like to tell the truth, keep promises, and not intentionally harm others.[44] Unlike consequentialists, deontologists hold that the validity of general moral principles does not depend on their consequences. They state that these principles should be followed in every case since they express how actions are inherently right or wrong. According to moral philosopher David Ross, it is wrong to break a promise even if no harm comes from it.[45] Deontologists are interested in which actions are right and often allow that there is a gap between what is right and what is good.[46] Many focus on prohibitions and describe which acts are forbidden under any circumstances.[47]
Agent-centered and patient-centered
Agent-centered deontological theories focus on the person who acts and the duties they have. Agent-centered theories often focus on the motives and intentions behind people's actions, highlighting the importance of acting for the right reasons. They tend to be agent-relative, meaning that the reasons for which people should act depend on personal circumstances. For example, a parent has a special obligation to their child while a stranger does not have this kind of obligation toward a child they do not know. Patient-centered theories, by contrast, focus on the people affected by actions and the rights they have. An example is the requirement to treat other people as ends and not merely as a means to an end.[48] This requirement can be used to argue, for example, that it is wrong to kill a person against their will even if this act would save the life of several others. Patient-centered deontological theories are usually agent-neutral, meaning that they apply equally to everyone in a situation, regardless of their specific role or position.[49]
Kantianism
Immanuel Kant is one of the most well-known deontologists.[50] He states that moral action should not follow fixed goals that people desire, such as being happy. Instead, he argues that there are universal principles that apply to everyone independent of their individual desires. He uses the term categorical imperative for these principles, saying that they have their source in the structure of practical reason and are true for all rational agents. According to Kant, to act morally is to act in agreement with reason as expressed by these principles[51] while violating them is both immoral and irrational.[52]
Kant provided several formulations of the categorical imperative. One emphasizes the universal nature of reason and states that people should only follow maxims[c] that could become universal laws applicable to everyone. This means the person would want everyone to follow this maxim. Another formulation states that one should treat other people always as ends in themselves and never as mere means to an end. This formulation focuses on respecting and valuing other people for their own sake rather than using them in the pursuit of personal goals.[54]
In either case, Kant says that what matters is to have a good will. A person has a good will if they respect the moral law and form their intentions and motives in agreement with it. Kant states that actions motivated in such a way are unconditionally good, meaning that they are good even in cases where they result in undesirable consequences.[55]
Others
Divine command theory says that God is the source of morality. It states that moral laws are divine commands and that to act morally is to obey and follow
Contractualists reject the reference to God as the source of morality and argue instead that morality is based on an explicit or implicit social contract between humans. They state that actual or hypothetical consent to this contract is the source of moral norms and duties. To determine which duties people have, contractualists often rely on a thought experiment about what rational people under ideal circumstances would agree on. For example, if they would agree that people should not lie then there is a moral obligation to refrain from lying. Because it relies on consent, contractualism is often understood as a patient-centered form of deontology.[59][d]
Discourse ethics also focuses on social agreement on moral norms but says that this agreement is based on communicative rationality. It aims to arrive at moral norms for pluralistic modern societies that encompass a diversity of viewpoints. A universal moral norm is seen as valid if all rational discourse participants do or would approve. This way, morality is not imposed by a single moral authority but arises from the moral discourse within society. This discourse should aim to establish an ideal speech situation to ensure fairness and inclusivity. In particular, this means that discourse participants are free to voice their different opinions without coercion but are at the same time required to justify them using rational argumentation.[61]
Virtue ethics
The main concern of virtue ethics is how virtues are expressed in actions. As such, it is neither directly interested in the consequences of actions nor in universal moral duties.[62] Virtues are positive character traits, like honesty, courage, kindness, and compassion. They are usually understood as dispositions to feel, decide, and act in a certain manner by being wholeheartedly committed to this manner. Virtues contrast with vices, which are their harmful counterparts.[63]
Virtue theorists usually say that the mere possession of virtues by itself is not sufficient. Instead, people should manifest virtues in their actions. An important factor is the practical wisdom, also referred to as phronesis, of knowing when, how, and which virtue to express. For example, a lack of practical wisdom may lead courageous people to perform morally wrong actions by taking unnecessary risks that should better be avoided.[64]
Different types of virtue ethics differ on how they understand virtues and their role in practical life. Eudaimonism is the classical view and draws a close relation between virtuous behavior and happiness. It states that people flourish by living a virtuous life. Eudaimonist theories often hold that virtues are positive potentials residing in human nature and that actualizing these potentials results in leading a good and happy life.[65] Agent-based theories, by contrast, see happiness only as a side effect and focus instead on the admirable traits and motivational characteristics expressed while acting. This is often combined with the idea that one can learn from exceptional individuals what those characteristics are.[65] Feminist ethics of care are another form of virtue ethics. They emphasize the importance of interpersonal relationships and say that benevolence by caring for the well-being of others is one of the key virtues.[66]
Influential schools of virtue ethics in ancient philosophy were
Other traditions
There are many other schools of normative ethics in addition to the three main traditions.
Ethical egoism is the view that people should act in their
Normative ethics has a central place
Metaethics
Metaethics is the branch of ethics that examines the nature, foundations, and scope of moral judgments, concepts, and values. It is not interested in what actions are right but in what it means for an action to be right and whether moral judgments are objective and can be true at all. It further examines the meaning of morality and moral terms.[84] Metaethics is a metatheory that operates on a higher level of abstraction than normative ethics by investigating its underlying assumptions. Metaethical theories typically do not directly adopt substantive positions on normative ethical theories. However, they can still influence these theories by examining their foundational principles.[85]
Metaethics overlaps with various branches of philosophy. On the level of
Basic concepts
Metaethics examines basic ethical concepts and their relations. Ethics is concerned with
Obligations are used to assess the moral status of actions,
Realism, relativism, and nihilism
A major debate in metaethics is about the ontological status of morality, questioning whether ethical values and principles are real. It examines whether moral properties exist as objective features independent of the human mind and culture rather than as subjective constructs or expressions of personal preferences and cultural norms.[102]
Moral realists accept the claim that there are objective moral facts. This view implies that moral values are mind-independent aspects of reality and that there is an absolute fact about whether a given action is right or wrong. A consequence of this view is that moral requirements have the same ontological status as non-moral facts: it is an objective fact whether there is an obligation to keep a promise just as it is an objective fact whether a thing has a black color.[102] Moral realism is often associated with the claim that there are universal ethical principles that apply equally to everyone.[103] It implies that if two people disagree about a moral evaluation then at least one of them is wrong. This observation is sometimes taken as an argument against moral realism since moral disagreement is widespread in most fields.[104]
Moral relativists reject the idea that morality is an objective feature of reality. They argue instead that moral principles are human inventions. This means that a behavior is not objectively right or wrong but only subjectively right or wrong relative to a certain standpoint. Moral standpoints may differ between persons, cultures, and historical periods.[105] For example, moral statements like "slavery is wrong" or "suicide is permitted" may be true in one culture and false in another.[106][i] Some moral relativists say that moral systems are constructed to serve certain goals such as social coordination. According to this view, different societies and different social groups within a society construct different moral systems based on their diverging purposes.[108] A different explanation states that morality arises from moral emotions, which are not the same for everyone.[109]
Moral nihilists deny the existence of moral facts. They are opposed to both objective moral facts defended by moral realism and subjective moral facts defended by moral relativism. They believe that the basic assumptions underlying moral claims are misguided. Some moral nihilists conclude from this that anything is allowed. A slightly different view emphasizes that moral nihilism is not itself a moral position about what is allowed and prohibited but the rejection of any moral position.[110] Moral nihilism, like moral relativism, recognizes that people judge actions as right or wrong from different perspectives. However, it disagrees that this practice involves morality and sees it as just one type of human behavior.[111]
Naturalism and non-naturalism
A central disagreement among moral realists is between naturalism and non-naturalism. Naturalism states that moral properties are
Non-naturalism accepts that moral properties form part of reality and argues that moral features are not identical or reducible to natural properties. This view is usually motivated by the idea that moral properties are unique because they express what should be the case.[115] Proponents of this position often emphasize this uniqueness by claiming that it is a fallacy to define ethics in terms of natural entities or to infer prescriptive from descriptive statements.[116]
Cognitivism and non-cognitivism
The metaethical debate between cognitivism and non-cognitivism is about the meaning of moral statements and is a part of the study of semantics. According to cognitivism, moral statements like "Abortion is morally wrong" and "Going to war is never morally justified" are truth-apt, meaning that they all have a truth value: they are either true or false. Cognitivism only claims that moral statements have a truth value but is not interested in which truth value they have. It is often seen as the default position since moral statements resemble other statements, like "Abortion is a medical procedure" or "Going to war is a political decision", which have a truth value.[117]
The semantic position of cognitivism is closely related to the ontological position of moral realism and philosophers who accept one often accept the other as well. An exception is
Non-cognitivism is the view that moral statements lack a truth value. According to this view, the statement "Murder is wrong" is neither true nor false. Some non-cognitivists claim that moral statements have no meaning at all. A different interpretation is that they express other types of meaning contents. Emotivism says that they articulate emotional attitudes. According to this view, the statement "Murder is wrong" expresses that the speaker has a negative moral attitude towards murder or dislikes it. Prescriptivism, by contrast, understands moral statements as commands. According to this view, stating that "Murder is wrong" expresses a command like "Do not commit murder".[119]
Moral knowledge
The epistemology of ethics studies whether or how one can know moral truths.
In contrast to foundationalists,
Thought experiments are used as a method in ethics to decide between competing theories. They usually present an imagined situation involving an ethical dilemma and explore how people's intuitions of right and wrong change based on specific details in that situation.[122] For example, in the trolley problem, a person can flip a switch to redirect a trolley from one track to another, thereby sacrificing the life of one person to save five. This scenario explores how the difference between doing and allowing harm affects moral obligations.[123] Another thought experiment examines the moral implications of abortion by imagining a situation in which a person gets connected without their consent to an ill violinist. In this scenario, the violinist dies if the connection is severed, similar to how a fetus dies in the case of abortion. The thought experiment explores whether it would be morally permissible to sever the connection within the next nine months.[124]
Moral motivation
On the level of psychology, metaethics is interested in how moral beliefs and experiences affect behavior. According to
Applied ethics
Applied ethics, also known as practical ethics,[127] is the branch of ethics and applied philosophy that examines concrete moral problems encountered in real-life situations. Unlike normative ethics, it is not concerned with discovering or justifying universal ethical principles. Instead, it studies how those principles can be applied to specific domains of practical life, what consequences they have in these fields, and whether additional domain-specific factors need to be considered.[128]
One of the main challenges of applied ethics is to breach the gap between abstract universal theories and their application to concrete situations.[129] For example, an in-depth understanding of Kantianism or utilitarianism is usually not sufficient to decide how to analyze the moral implications of a medical procedure like abortion. One reason is that it may not be clear how the Kantian requirement of respecting everyone's personhood applies to a fetus and what the long term consequences are in terms of the greatest good for the greatest number.[130] This difficulty is particularly relevant to applied ethicists who employ a top-down methodology by starting from universal ethical principles and applying them to particular cases within a specific domain.[131] A different approach is to use a bottom-up methodology, known as casuistry. This method does not start from universal principles but from moral intuitions about particular cases. It seeks to arrive at moral principles relevant to a specific domain, which may not be universally applicable to other domains.[132] In either case, inquiry into applied ethics is often triggered by ethical dilemmas to solve cases in which a person is subject to conflicting moral requirements.[133]
Applied ethics covers issues belonging to both the private sphere, like right conduct in the family and close relationships, and the public sphere, like moral problems posed by new technologies and duties toward future generations.[134] Major branches include bioethics, business ethics, and professional ethics. There are many other branches and their domains of inquiry often overlap.[135]
Bioethics
Bioethics is a wide field that covers moral problems associated with
Bioethics is relevant to various aspects of life and to many professions. It covers a wide range of moral problems associated with topics like
Bioethics can be divided into
Animal ethics examines how humans should treat other animals. This field often emphasizes the importance of animal welfare while arguing that humans should avoid or minimize the harm done to animals. There is wide agreement that it is wrong to torture animals for fun. The situation is more complicated in cases where harm is inflicted on animals as a side effect of the pursuit of human interests. This happens, for example, during factory farming, when using animals as food, and for research experiments on animals.[144] A key topic in animal ethics is the formulation of animal rights. Animal rights theorists assert that animals have a certain moral status and that humans have an obligation to respect this status when interacting with them.[145] Examples of suggested animal rights include the right to life, the right to be free from unnecessary suffering, and the right to natural behavior in a suitable environment.[146]
Environmental ethics deals with moral problems relating to the natural environment including animals, plants,
Business and professional ethics
Business ethics examines the moral implications of business conduct and investigates how ethical principles apply to corporations and organizations.
Professional ethics is a closely related field that studies ethical principles applying to members of a specific
Other subfields
Many other fields of applied ethics are discussed in the academic literature. Communication ethics covers moral principles of communicative conduct. Two key issues in it are freedom of speech and speech responsibility. Freedom of speech concerns the ability to articulate one's opinions and ideas without the threats of punishment and censorship. Speech responsibility is about being accountable for the consequences of communicative action and inaction.[157] A closely related field is information ethics, which focuses on the moral implications of creating, controlling, disseminating, and using information.[158]
The
The
Further fields of applied ethics include political ethics, which examines the moral dimensions of political decisions,[165] educational ethics, which covers ethical issues related to proper teaching practices,[166] and sexual ethics, which addresses the moral implications of sexual behavior.[167]
Related fields
Value theory
Value theory, also referred to as axiology,[k] is the philosophical study of value. It examines the nature and types of value.[169] A central distinction is between intrinsic and instrumental value. An entity has intrinsic value if it is good in itself or good for its own sake. An entity has instrumental value if it is valuable as a means to something else, for example, by causing something that has intrinsic value.[170] Further topics include what kinds of things have value and how valuable they are. For instance, axiological hedonists say that pleasure is the only source of intrinsic value with the magnitude of value corresponding to the degree of pleasure. Axiological pluralists, by contrast, hold that there are different sources of intrinsic value.[171]
There are disagreements about the exact relation between value theory and ethics. Some philosophers characterize value theory as a subdiscipline of ethics while others see value theory as the broader term that encompasses other fields besides ethics, such as aesthetics and political philosophy.[172] A different characterization sees the two disciplines as overlapping but distinct fields.[173] The term axiological ethics is sometimes used for the discipline studying this overlap, that is, the part of ethics that studies values.[174] The two disciplines are sometimes distinguished based on their focus: ethics is about moral behavior or what is right while value theory is about value or what is good.[175] Some ethical theories, like consequentialism, stand very close to value theory by defining what is right in terms of what is good. But this is not true for ethics in general and deontological theories tend to reject the idea that what is good can be used to define what is right.[176]
Moral psychology
Moral psychology explores the psychological foundations and processes involved in moral behavior. It is an
One of its key topics is
Evolutionary ethics, a closely related field, explores how evolutionary processes have shaped ethics. One of its key ideas is that natural selection is responsible for moral behavior and moral sensitivity. It interprets morality as an adaptation to evolutionary pressure that augments fitness by offering a selective advantage.[181] Altruism, for example, can provide benefits to group survival by improving cooperation.[182] Some theorists, like Mark Rowlands, argue that morality is not limited to humans, meaning that some non-human animals act based on moral emotions. Other explore evolutionary precursors to morality in non-human animals.[183]
Descriptive ethics
Descriptive ethics, also called comparative ethics,
Descriptive ethics is a multidisciplinary field that is covered by disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, and history. Its empirical outlook contrasts with the philosophical inquiry into normative questions, such as which ethical principles are correct and how to justify them.[186]
History
The history of ethics studies how moral philosophy has developed and evolved in the course of history.
In
Ethical thought in the
Moral philosophy in the modern period was characterized by a shift toward a secular approach to ethics. Thomas Hobbes identified self-interest as the primary drive of humans. He concluded that it would lead to "a war of every man against every man" unless a social contract is established to avoid this outcome.[200] David Hume thought that only moral sentiments, like empathy, can motivate ethical actions while he saw reason not as a motivating factor but only as what anticipates the consequences of possible actions.[201] Immanuel Kant, by contrast, saw reason as the source of morality. He formulated a deontological theory, according to which the ethical value of actions depends on their conformity with moral laws independent of their outcome. These laws take the form of categorical imperatives, which are universal requirements that apply to every situation.[202] Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel saw Kant's categorical imperative on its own as an empty formalism and emphasized the role of social institutions in providing concrete content to moral duties.[203] According to the Christian philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard, the demands of ethical duties are sometimes suspended when doing God's will.[204] Friedrich Nietzsche formulated criticisms of both Christian and Kantian morality.[205] Another influential development in this period was the formulation of utilitarianism by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. According to the utilitarian doctrine, actions should promote happiness while reducing suffering and the right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.[206]
An important development in
See also
References
Notes
- ^ According to some theorists, teleological ethics is a wider term than consequentialism because it also covers certain forms of virtue ethics.[19]
- ^ This state known as supererogation.[36]
- ^ A maxim is a rule that people can adopt to guide their action, like "If you want to make big money, you should go into sales" or "Thou shalt not commit murder".[53]
- ^ Some ethicists state that contractualism is not a normative ethical theory but a metaethical theory because of its emphasis on how moral norms are justified.[60]
- ^ The ancient Greeks used the word arête, which has the meaning of both virtue and excellence.[67]
- ^ Ontology is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature and categories of being.[86]
- ^ Deontic logic provides a formal system describing the logical relations between these and similar concepts.[95]
- ^ Some philosophers suggest that there is moral luck, which occurs when factors outside a person's control influence the moral status of that person.[100]
- Einstein's theory of relativity, which states that the magnitude of physical properties like mass, length, and duration depends on the frame of reference of the observer.[107]
- ^ According to the traditionally influential view of natural law ethics, morality is based on a natural law created by God.[113]
- ^ There are disagreements in the academic literature about whether they are synonyms or whether one or the other is the wider term.[168]
Citations
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- Vogt 2017, pp. 42–43
- Hollenbach 2002, p. 3
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- Norman 2005, p. 622
- Nagel 2006, Lead Section
- Crisp 2011, § 1. Ethics and Metaethics
- Deigh 1999, pp. 284–285
- Mulvaney 2009, pp. vii–xi
- ^
- Pritchard 2015, p. 5
- Dittmer, § 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethic
- Jackson et al. 2021, pp. 1–2
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- Nagel 2006, § What Is Morality?
- Crisp 2011, § 1. Ethics and Metaethics
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- Sinnott-Armstrong 2023, Lead Section, § 3. What Is Good? Hedonistic Vs. Pluralistic Consequentialisms
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- Hooker 2005, pp. 162–164
- ^ a b Alexander & Moore 2021, § 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism
- ^
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- Alexander & Moore 2021, § 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism
- ^
- Hooker 2005, pp. 162–164
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- ^
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- Hooker 2023, Lead Section
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- ^
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- ^
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- ^ Dreier 2007, pp. 240–241
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External links
- Meta-Ethics at PhilPapers
- Normative Ethics at PhilPapers
- Applied Ethics at PhilPapers
- Ethics at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project