Firefly
Firefly Temporal range:
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Photuris lucicrescens[4] | |
Lampyris noctiluca mating | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Class: | Insecta |
Order: | Coleoptera |
Suborder: | Polyphaga |
Infraorder: | Elateriformia |
Superfamily: | Elateroidea |
Family: | Lampyridae Rafinesque, 1815 |
Subfamilies | |
Chespiritoinae[3] Cyphonocerinae Lamprohizinae[1] Lampyrinae Luciolinae Ototretinae Photurinae Psilocladinae[1] Pterotinae[1] Genera incertae sedis:[1] Anadrilus Kirsch, 1875 Araucariocladus Silveira and Mermudes, 2017 Crassitarsus Martin, 2019 Lamprigera Motschulsky, 1853 Oculogryphus Jeng, Engel, and Yang, 2007 Photoctus McDermott, 1961 Pollaclasis Newman, 1838 |
The Lampyridae are a
Fireflies are found in
Biology
Fireflies are beetles and in many aspects resemble other beetles at all stages of their
The larvae feed until the end of the summer. Most fireflies
Adult diet varies among firefly species: some are predatory, while others feed on plant pollen or nectar. Some adults, like the European glow-worm, have no mouth, emerging only to mate and lay eggs before dying. In most species, adults live for a few weeks in summer.[6][10]
Fireflies vary widely in their general appearance, with differences in color, shape, size, and features such as antennae. Adults differ in size depending on the species, with the largest up to 25 mm (1 in) long. Many species have non-flying larviform females. These can often be distinguished from the larvae only because the adult females have compound eyes, unlike the simple eyes of larvae, though the females have much smaller (and often highly regressed) eyes than those of their males.[11] The most commonly known fireflies are nocturnal, although numerous species are diurnal and usually not luminescent; however, some species that remain in shadowy areas may produce light.[5]
Most fireflies are distasteful to vertebrate predators, as they contain the steroid pyrones
Light and chemical production
Light production in fireflies is due to the chemical process of
Adults emit light primarily for mate selection. Early larval bioluminescence was adopted in the phylogeny of adult fireflies, and was repeatedly gained and lost before becoming fixed and retained as a mechanism of sexual communication in many species.
Synchronization of flashing occurs in several species; it is explained as phase synchronization and spontaneous order.[24] Tropical fireflies routinely synchronise their flashes among large groups, particularly in Southeast Asia. At night along river banks in the Malaysian jungles, fireflies synchronize their light emissions precisely. Current hypotheses about the causes of this behavior involve diet, social interaction, and altitude. In the Philippines, thousands of fireflies can be seen all year-round in the town of Donsol. In the United States, one of the most famous sightings of fireflies blinking in unison occurs annually near Elkmont, Tennessee, in the Great Smoky Mountains during the first weeks of June.[25] Congaree National Park in South Carolina is another host to this phenomenon.[26]
Female "femme fatale" Photuris fireflies mimic the photic signaling patterns of the smaller Photinus, attracting males to what appears to be a suitable mate, then eating them.[13] This provides the females with a supply of the toxic defensive lucibufagin chemicals.[27]
Many fireflies do not produce light. Usually these species are diurnal, or day-flying, such as those in the genus Ellychnia. A few diurnal fireflies that inhabit primarily shadowy places, such as beneath tall plants or trees, are luminescent. One such genus is Lucidota.
Non-bioluminescent fireflies use pheromones to signal mates. Some basal groups do not show bioluminescence and use chemical signaling, instead. Phosphaenus hemipterus has photic organs, yet is a diurnal firefly and displays large antennae and small eyes. These traits strongly suggest pheromones are used for sexual selection, while photic organs are used for warning signals. In controlled experiments, males coming from downwind arrived at females first, indicating that males travel upwind along a pheromone plume. Males can find females without the use of visual cues, so sexual communication in P. hemipterus appears to be mediated entirely by pheromones.[28]
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Lamprohiza female by her own light
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A video of fireflies
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Fireflies in the woods near Nuremberg, Germany, 30-second exposure
Evolution
Fossil history
The oldest known fossil of the Lampyridae family is Protoluciola from the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian ~ 99 million years ago) Burmese amber of Myanmar, which belongs to the subfamily Luciolinae. The light producing organ is clearly present.[29] The ancestral glow colour for the last common ancestor of all living fireflies has been inferred to be green, based on genomic analysis.[30]
Taxonomy
The fireflies (including the lightning bugs) are a family, Lampyridae, of some 2,000 species within the Coleoptera. The family forms a single clade, a natural phylogenetic group.[1] The term glowworm is used for both adults and larvae of firefly species such as Lampyris noctiluca, the common European glowworm, in which only the nonflying adult females glow brightly; the flying males glow weakly and intermittently.[31][32][33] In the Americas, "glow worms" are the closely related Coleopteran family Phengodidae, while in New Zealand and Australia, a "glow worm" is a luminescent larva of the fungus gnat Arachnocampa, within the true flies, Diptera.[31]
Phylogeny
The phylogeny of the Lampyridae family, based on both phylogenetic and morphological evidence by Martin et al. 2019, is:[1]
Coleoptera
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Interaction with humans
Conservation
Firefly populations are thought to be declining worldwide. While monitoring data for many regions are scarce, a growing number of anecdotal reports, coupled with several published studies from Europe and Asia, suggest that fireflies are in trouble.[34][35][36][37] Recent IUCN Red List assessments for North American fireflies have identified species with heightened extinction risk in the US, with 18 taxa categorized as threatened with extinction.[38][39]
Fireflies face threats including habitat loss and degradation, light pollution, pesticide use, poor water quality, invasive species, over-collection, and climate change.[40] Firefly tourism, a quickly growing sector of the travel and tourism industry, has also been identified as a potential threat to fireflies and their habitats when not managed appropriately.[41] Like many other organisms, fireflies are directly affected by land-use change (e.g., loss of habitat area and connectivity), which is identified as the main driver of biodiversity changes in terrestrial ecosystems.[42] Pesticides, including insecticides and herbicides, have also been indicated as a likely cause of firefly decline.[43][44] These chemicals can not only harm fireflies directly but also potentially reduce prey populations and degrade habitat. Light pollution is an especially concerning threat to fireflies. Since the majority of firefly species use bioluminescent courtship signals,[45] they are also very sensitive to environmental levels of light and consequently to light pollution.[45][46] A growing number of studies investigating the effects of artificial light at night on fireflies has shown that light pollution can disrupt fireflies' courtship signals and even interfere with larval dispersal.[47][48][49][50] Researchers agree that protecting and enhancing firefly habitat is necessary to conserve their populations. Recommendations include reducing or limiting artificial light at night, restoring habitats where threatened species occur, and eliminating unnecessary pesticide use, among many others.[44][51][52]
Sundarbans Firefly Sanctuary in Bangladesh was established in 2019.
In culture
Fireflies have featured in human culture around the world for centuries.[53] In Japan, the emergence of fireflies (Japanese: hotaru) signifies the anticipated changing of the seasons;[54] firefly viewing is a special aesthetic pleasure of midsummer, celebrated in parks that exist for that one purpose.[55] The Japanese sword called Hotarumaru, made in the 14th century, is so named for a legend that one night its flaws were repaired by fireflies.[56][57]
In Italy, the firefly (Italian: lucciola) appears in Canto XXVI of Dante's Inferno, written in the 14th century:[58]
Quante ’l villan ch’al poggio si riposa,
nel tempo che colui che ’l mondo schiara
la faccia sua a noi tien meno ascosa,
come la mosca cede a la zanzara,
vede lucciole giù per la vallea,
forse colà dov’ e’ vendemmia e ara:
di tante fiamme tutta risplendea
l’ottava bolgia, ...— Dante's Inferno, Canto XXVI, lines 25–32
As many as the fireflies which the peasant sees in the [Tuscan] valley below, when he is resting on the hill—in the season [midsummer] when the sun hides least from us, and at the time of day [dusk] when the fly gives place to the mosquito—perhaps in the fields where he tills the ground and gathers in the grapes; with that many flames the eighth ditch [of Hell] was shining, ...
— prose translation
References
- ^ .
- .
- .
- ^ Cirrus Digit Firefly Photuris lucicrescens
- ^ ISBN 978-1400880317.
- ^ a b c Marshall, Michael (22 February 2020). "Why the lights are going out for fireflies". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
- S2CID 84624340.
- ^ Armstrong, Charles. "Winter Firefly". The University of Maine Cooperative Extension. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
- ^ "About Fireflies". Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation. 17 November 2021. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
- JSTOR 2423887.
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- ^ S2CID 16360536.
- JSTOR 3496389.
- ^ a b Gullan & Cranston 2014, pp. 121–122.
- ^ Day, John (2009). "Beetle bioluminescence: a genetic and enzymatic research review". In Meyer-Rochow, V. B. (ed.). Bioluminescence in Focus. Research Signpost: Kerala. pp. 325–355.
- ^ Frick-Ruppert, Jennifer E.; Rosen, Joshua J. (2008). "Morphology and Behavior of Phausis Reticulata (Blue Ghost Firefly)". Journal of the North Carolina Academy of Science. 124 (4): 139–147.
- PMID 27696431.
- PMID 38443352.
- PMID 27998815.
- PMID 17644427.
- S2CID 46266960.
- ^ S2CID 26075485.
- ISBN 978-0-387-95223-9.
- ^ Synchronous Fireflies – Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Nps.gov (3 June 2013). Retrieved on 22 June 2013.
- ^ Cross, Robert (23 May 2004) "Tree huggin'". Chicago Tribune.
- ^ Gullan & Cranston 2014, p. 387.
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- ^ PMID 17285566.
- ^ "UK Glow worm survey home page".
- ^ "Enter a glow-worm record". 11 June 2015. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
- ^ Atkins, Val; Bell, Dolly; Bowker, Ann; et al. (2016). "The status of the glow-worm Lampyris noctiluca L. (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) in England". Lampyrid. 4: 20–35.
- S2CID 216387774.
- ^ Khoo, Veronica; Nada, B.; Kirton, L. G.; et al. (2009). "Monitoring the population of the firefly Pteroptyx tener along the Selangor River, Malaysia for conservation and sustainable ecotourism". Lampyrid. 2: 162–173.
- ^ Wong, C.; Yeap, C. A. (2012). "Conservation of congregating firefly zones (CFZs) in peninsular Malaysia". Lampyrid. 2: 174–187.
- ^ "Latest Update to the IUCN Red List Includes First Global Assessments for Fireflies, with a Spotlight on North America | Xerces Society". xerces.org. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
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- ^ Potter, Daniel A. See "How You Can Help", FireFly.org, citing (1) "Understanding Halofenozide (Mach 2) and Imidacloprid (Merit) Soil Insecticides," International SportsTurf Institute, Incorporated, Turfax, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Jan-Feb 1998) and (2) "Relative Toxicities of Chemicals to the Earthworm Eisenia foetida," by Brian L. Roberts and H. Wyman Dorough. Article first published online: 20 October 2009. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Vol. 3, No. 1 (Jan. 1984), pp. 67–78.
- ^ a b Fallon, Candace; Hoyle, Sarah; Lewis, Sara; et al. (2019). "Conserving the Jewels of the Night: Guidelines for Protecting Fireflies in the United States and Canada" (PDF). The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation. Portland, Oregon. Retrieved 23 June 2021.
- ^ JSTOR 2388290.
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- ^ "How You Can Help Prevent Fireflies from Disappearing". Firefly.org. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
- ^ "How You Can Help". Xerces Society. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
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- JPNO 46023259. Retrieved 25 February 2023.
- ^ Alighieri, Dante (1320). Inferno. Canto XXVI, lines 25–32.
Sources
- Gullan, P. J.; Cranston, P. S. (2014). The Insects: An Outline of Entomology (5th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Further reading
- Faust, Lynn Frierson (2017). "Fireflies, Glow-worms, and Lightning Bugs"
- Lewis, S. M.; Cratsley, C. K. (2008). "Flash signal evolution, mate choice, and predation in fireflies". S2CID 16360536.
- Lewis, Sara (2016). Silent Sparks: The Wondrous World of Fireflies. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1400880317.
- Stous, Hollend (1997). "A review of predation in Photuris, and its effects on the evolution of flash signaling in other New World fireflies".
External links
- An introduction to European fireflies and glow-worms
- Firefly.org – Firefly & Lightning Bug Facts, Pictures, Information About Firefly Insect Disappearance
- Firefly simulating robot, China
- NCBI taxonomy database
- Museum of Science, Boston – Understanding Fireflies
- Video of a firefly larva in Austria
- FireflyExperience.org – Luminous Photography and Videos of Fireflies & Lightning Bugs