First Vatican Council

Pope Pius defined as dogma the Immaculate Conception of Mary, the mother of Jesus, in 1854.^[11] However, the proposal to define papal infallibility itself as dogma met with resistance, not because of doubts about the substance of the proposed definition, but because some considered it inopportune to take that step at that time.^[11] Richard McBrien divides the bishops attending Vatican I into three groups. The first group, which McBrien calls the "active infallibilists", was led by Henry Edward Manning and Ignatius von Senestrey. According to McBrien, the majority of the bishops were not so much interested in a formal definition of papal infallibility as they were in strengthening papal authority and, because of this, were willing to accept the agenda of the fallibilists. A minority, some 10% of the bishops, McBrien says, opposed the proposed definition of papal infallibility on both ecclesiastical and pragmatic grounds, because, in their opinion, it departed from the ecclesiastical structure of the early Christian church.^[12] From a pragmatic perspective, they feared that defining papal infallibility would alienate some Catholics, create new difficulties for union with non-Catholics, and provoke interference by governments in ecclesiastical affairs. Those who held this view included most of the German and Austro-Hungarian bishops, nearly half of the Americans, one third of the French, most of the Chaldaeans and Melkites, and a few Armenians.^[13] Only a few bishops appear to have had doubts about the dogma itself.^[13]

Dei Filius

On 24 April 1870, the dogmatic constitution on the Catholic faith Dei Filius was adopted unanimously. The draft presented to the council on 8 March drew no serious criticism, but a group of 35 English-speaking bishops, who feared that the opening phrase of the first chapter, "Sancta romana catholica Ecclesia" ('Holy Roman Catholic Church'), might be construed as favouring the Anglican branch theory, later succeeded in having an additional adjective inserted, so that the final text read: "Sancta catholica apostolica romana Ecclesia" ('Holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church').^[14] The constitution thus set forth the teaching of the "Holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church" on God, revelation and faith.^[15]

Pastor aeternus

There was stronger opposition to the draft constitution on the nature of the church, which at first did not include the question of papal infallibility,^[3] but the majority party in the council, whose position on this matter was much stronger,^[11] brought it forward. It was decided to postpone discussion of everything in the draft except infallibility.^[11] The decree did not go forward without controversy; Cardinal Filippo Maria Guidi [it], Archbishop of Bologna, proposed adding that the pope is assisted by "the counsel of the bishops manifesting the tradition of the churches". Pius IX rejected Guidi's view of the bishops as witnesses to the tradition, maintaining: "I am the tradition."^[16]

On 13 July 1870, a preliminary vote on the section on infallibility was held in a general congregation: 451 voted simply in favour (placet), 88 against (non placet), and 62 in favour but on condition of some amendment (placet iuxta modum).^[17] This made evident what the final outcome would be, and some 60 members of the opposition left Rome so as not to be associated with approval of the document. The final vote, with a choice only between placet and non placet, was taken on 18 July 1870, with 533 votes in favour and only 2 against defining as a dogma the infallibility of the pope when speaking ex cathedra.^[3] The two votes in opposition were cast by Bishops Aloisio Riccio and Edward Fitzgerald.^[18]

The dogmatic constitution states, in chapter 4:9, that the pope has "full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the whole Church" (chapter 3:9); and that, when he:

speaks ex cathedra, that is, when, in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which the divine Redeemer willed his Church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals.

None of the bishops who had argued that proclaiming the definition was inopportune refused to accept it. Some Catholics, mainly of German language and largely inspired by the historian Ignaz von Döllinger, formed the separate Old Catholic Church in protest; von Döllinger did not formally join the new group himself.^[19]

Suspension and aftermath

Discussion of the rest of the document on the nature of the church was to continue when the bishops returned after a summer break. In the meanwhile, the

In reaction to the political implications of the doctrine of infallibility on the sovereignty of secular states, some of the European kingdoms and republics took rapid action against the Catholic Church. The Austrian Empire annulled the Concordat arranged with the Roman Curia in 1855. In the Kingdom of Prussia, the anti-Catholic Kulturkampf broke out immediately afterwards, and in the French Third Republic the synod so accentuated the power of ultramontanism (an emphasis on the powers of the pope), that Republican France took steps to curb it by revoking the Concordat of 1801, and therefore completely separating the Church from the state.^[24]

Controversies and opposition

The dogma of papal infallibility raised considerable opposition in some liberal theological circles in the Netherlands, Austria, Germany and Switzerland; the most notable theologian opposing the formulation of the dogma was Ignaz von Döllinger, who was excommunicated in 1871 by Archbishop Gregor von Scherr of Munich and Freising, for refusing to accept the council's decision.^[25]

Old Catholic schism

Following the council's decision, a minority of clergy and laity opposed to the newly proclaimed dogma united with the Jansenists, which had maintained a somewhat precarious existence in separation from Rome since the 18th century but had preserved an episcopal succession recognized by Rome as valid though illicit. The first consecration of the new order was that of Joseph H. Reinkens, who was made bishop in Germany by a sympathetic Jansenist bishop Johannes Heykamp of Utrecht. Such new group referred to itself as the Old Catholic Church (or the Christian Catholic Church in Switzerland). Old Catholics in Europe united into the Union of Utrecht in 1889, which entered into full communion with the Anglican Communion in 1931 through the Bonn Agreement.^[26]

The Union of Utrecht still exists to this day and includes the Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands, the Catholic Diocese of the Old Catholics in Germany, the Old Catholic Church of Austria, the Old Catholic Church of the Czech Republic, the Polish-Catholic Church of the Republic of Poland and the Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland. The Union of Scranton, formed by more theologically conservative Old Catholics, was formed in 2008 and currently includes the Polish National Catholic Church and the Nordic Catholic Church.^[26]

See also

• Second Vatican Council

References

Notes

Bibliography

• Burton, Ivor F.; Woodruff, Douglas (2014). "Pius IX". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
• De Mattei, Roberto (2004). Pius IX. Translated by Laughland, John. Leominster, England: Gracewing.
• ISBN 978-0-300-11597-0
  .
• "First Vatican Council". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2014. Retrieved 2 March 2018.

• Hales, E. E. Y. "The First Vatican Council." Studies in Church History 7 (1971): 329–344. online
• Hennesey, James (2009). "First Vatican Council". Encarta. Microsoft. Archived from the original on 31 October 2009. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
• Hennesey, James. "National Traditions and the First Vatican Council." Archivum Historiae Pontificiae (1969): 491–512. online

• Hughes, Philip (1961). The Church in Crisis: A History of the General Councils, 325–1870. Garden City, New York: Hanover House. Retrieved 3 March 2018.
• Kirch, J. M. Konrad (1912). "Vatican Council" . In Herbermann, Charles G.; Pace, Edward A.; Pallen, Condé B.; Shahan, Thomas J.; Wynne, John J. (eds.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15. New York: The Encyclopedia Press (published 1913). pp. 303–309.
• ISBN 978-1-57958-250-0
  .
• ISBN 978-0-06-065338-5
  .
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Mirbt, Carl Theodor (1911). "Vatican Council, The". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 947–951.

• Nobili-Vitelleschi, Francesco (1876). The Vatican Council: Eight Months at Rome during the Vatican Council. London: John Murray. Retrieved 3 March 2018. This contains a detailed account of the course of the Council, and some commentary on the immediate political impact.

• O'Malley, John W. Vatican I: the council and the making of the ultramontane church (Harvard University Press, 2018).

• Tanner, Norman P., ed. (1990). "First Vatican Council (1869–1870)". Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils. Retrieved 2 March 2018 – via EWTN.
• "Vatican Council, First". The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. 2001. Archived from the original on 18 June 2001. Retrieved 3 March 2018.

Further reading

• De Cesare, Raffaele (1909). The Last Days of Papal Rome. Translated by Zimmern, Helen. London: Archibald Constable & Co.
• Hales, E. E. Y. (1958). The Catholic Church in the Modern World: A Survey from the French Revolution to the Present. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.
• Hales, E. E. Y. Pio Nono (1954) biography of Pope Pius IX; online

• Hasler, August Bernhard (1981). How the Pope Became Infallible: Pius IX and the Politics of Persuasion. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.
  ISBN 978-0385158510
  .
• Hoppen, K. Theodore. "First Vatican Council, 1869–70" History Today (Oct 1969), Vol. 19 Issue 10, pp. 713–720 online

• Kadić, Ante. "Bishop Strossmayer and the First Vatican Council." Slavonic and East European Review 49.116 (1971): 382–409. online; he played a major role.
• Noether, Emiliana P. "Vatican Council I: Its Political and Religious Setting." Journal of Modern History 40.2 (1968): 218–233. online.

• Portier, William L. "The First Vatican Council, John Henry Newman, and the Making of a Post-Christendom Church." Newman Studies Journal 17.1 (2020): 123–144. excerpt

• Prusak, Bernard P. (2004). The Church Unfinished: Ecclesiology through the Centuries. New York: Paulist Press.
  ISBN 978-0-8091-4286-6
  .
• Raymond, John. "The First Vatican Council 1869–1870." History Today (Nov 1962) 12#11 pp 759–767. online.
• Verhoeven, Timothy. "Transatlantic Connections: American Anti-Catholicism and the First Vatican Council (1869–70)." Catholic Historical Review 100.4 (2014): 695–720. Anti-Catholics were outraged. excerpt
• Wallace, L. P. The Papacy and European Diplomacy, 1869–1878 (U North Carolina Press, 1948)

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to First Vatican Council.

• Text of the council's ruling