Frida Kahlo
Frida Kahlo | |
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Born | Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo y Calderón 6 July 1907 |
Died | 13 July 1954 Coyoacán, Mexico City, Mexico | (aged 47)
Other names | Magdalena Carmen Frieda Kahlo y Calderón, Frieda Kahlo |
Occupation | Painter |
Works | List |
Movement | |
Spouses | |
Parent |
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Relatives | Cristina Kahlo (sister) |
Signature | |
Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo y Calderón (Spanish pronunciation:
Born to a German father and a mestiza mother, Kahlo spent most of her childhood and adult life at La Casa Azul, her family home in Coyoacán – now publicly accessible as the Frida Kahlo Museum. Although she was disabled by polio as a child, Kahlo had been a promising student headed for medical school until being injured in a bus accident at the age of 18, which caused her lifelong pain and medical problems. During her recovery, she returned to her childhood interest in art with the idea of becoming an artist.
Kahlo's interests in politics and art led her to join the
Kahlo's work as an artist remained relatively unknown until the late 1970s, when her work was rediscovered by art historians and political activists. By the early 1990s, not only had she become a recognized figure in art history, but she was also regarded as an icon for
Artistic career
Early career
Kahlo enjoyed art from an early age, receiving drawing instruction from printmaker Fernando Fernández (who was her father's friend)
A severe bus accident at the age of 18 left Kahlo in lifelong pain. Confined to bed for three months following the accident, Kahlo began to paint.[12] She started to consider a career as a medical illustrator, as well, which would combine her interests in science and art. Her mother provided her with a specially-made easel, which enabled her to paint in bed, and her father lent her some of his oil paints. She had a mirror placed above the easel, so that she could see herself.[13][12] Painting became a way for Kahlo to explore questions of identity and existence.[14] She explained, "I paint myself because I am often alone and I am the subject I know best."[12] She later stated that the accident and the isolating recovery period made her desire "to begin again, painting things just as [she] saw them with [her] own eyes and nothing more."[15]
Most of the paintings Kahlo made during this time were portraits of herself, her sisters, and her schoolfriends.
On moving to Morelos in 1929 with her husband Rivera, Kahlo was inspired by the city of Cuernavaca where they lived.[19] She changed her artistic style and increasingly drew inspiration from Mexican folk art.[20] Art historian Andrea Kettenmann states that she may have been influenced by Adolfo Best Maugard's treatise on the subject, for she incorporated many of the characteristics that he outlined – for example, the lack of perspective and the combining of elements from pre-Columbian and colonial periods of Mexican art.[21] Her identification with La Raza, the people of Mexico, and her profound interest in its culture remained important facets of her art throughout the rest of her life.[22]
Work in the United States
When Kahlo and Rivera moved to San Francisco in 1930, Kahlo was introduced to American artists such as
On moving to Detroit with Rivera, Kahlo experienced numerous health problems related to a failed pregnancy.
Return to Mexico City and international recognition
Upon returning to Mexico City in 1934 Kahlo made no new paintings, and only two in the following year, due to health complications.[38] In 1937 and 1938, however, Kahlo's artistic career was extremely productive, following her divorce and then reconciliation with Rivera. She painted more "than she had done in all her eight previous years of marriage", creating such works as My Nurse and I (1937), Memory, the Heart (1937), Four Inhabitants of Mexico (1938), and What the Water Gave Me (1938).[39] Although she was still unsure about her work, the National Autonomous University of Mexico exhibited some of her paintings in early 1938.[40] She made her first significant sale in the summer of 1938 when film star and art collector Edward G. Robinson purchased four paintings at $200 each.[40] Even greater recognition followed when French Surrealist André Breton visited Rivera in April 1938. He was impressed by Kahlo, immediately claiming her as a surrealist and describing her work as "a ribbon around a bomb".[41] He not only promised to arrange for her paintings to be exhibited in Paris but also wrote to his friend and art dealer, Julien Levy, who invited her to hold her first solo exhibition at his gallery on the East 57th Street in Manhattan.[42]
In October, Kahlo traveled alone to New York, where her colorful Mexican dress "caused a sensation" and made her seen as "the height of exotica".
In January 1939, Kahlo sailed to Paris to follow up on André Breton's invitation to stage an exhibition of her work.
The exhibition opened in March, but received much less attention than she had received in the United States, partly due to the looming
In the United States, Kahlo's paintings continued to raise interest. In 1941, her works were featured at the
Kahlo gained more appreciation for her art in Mexico as well. She became a founding member of the Seminario de Cultura Mexicana, a group of twenty-five artists commissioned by the Ministry of Public Education in 1942 to spread public knowledge of Mexican culture.[58] As a member, she took part in planning exhibitions and attended a conference on art.[59] In Mexico City, her paintings were featured in two exhibitions on Mexican art that were staged at the English-language Benjamin Franklin Library in 1943 and 1944. She was invited to participate in "Salon de la Flor", an exhibition presented at the annual flower exposition.[60] An article by Rivera on Kahlo's art was also published in the journal published by the Seminario de Cultura Mexicana.[61]
In 1943, Kahlo accepted a teaching position at the recently reformed, nationalistic
Kahlo struggled to make a living from her art until the mid to late 1940s, as she refused to adapt her style to suit her clients' wishes.[67] She received two commissions from the Mexican government in the early 1940s. She did not complete the first one, possibly due to her dislike of the subject, and the second commission was rejected by the commissioning body.[67] Nevertheless, she had regular private clients, such as engineer Eduardo Morillo Safa, who ordered more than thirty portraits of family members over the decade.[67] Her financial situation improved when she received a 5000-peso national prize for her painting Moses (1945) in 1946 and when The Two Fridas was purchased by the Museo de Arte Moderno in 1947.[68] According to art historian Andrea Kettenmann, by the mid-1940s, her paintings were "featured in the majority of group exhibitions in Mexico". Further, Martha Zamora wrote that she could "sell whatever she was currently painting; sometimes incomplete pictures were purchased right off the easel".[69]
Later years
External images | |
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The Broken Column (1944) | |
Moses (1945) | |
Without Hope (1945) | |
Tree of Hope, Stand Fast (1946) |
Even as Kahlo was gaining recognition in Mexico, her health was declining rapidly, and an attempted surgery to support her spine failed.
Photographer
In 1954, Kahlo was again hospitalized in April and May.
Self-portraits
- Self-portrait on the Border of Mexico and the United States (1932)
- Henry Ford Hospital (1932)
- Self-Portrait Dedicated to Leon Trotsky (1937)
- The Two Fridas (1939)
- Self-Portrait with Thorn Necklace and Hummingbird (1940)
- Self-Portrait with Cropped Hair
Style and influences
Estimates vary on how many paintings Kahlo made during her life, with figures ranging from fewer than 150[82] to around 200.[83][84] Her earliest paintings, which she made in the mid-1920s, show influence from Renaissance masters and European avant-garde artists such as Amedeo Modigliani.[85] Towards the end of the decade, Kahlo derived more inspiration from Mexican folk art,[86] drawn to its elements of "fantasy, naivety, and fascination with violence and death".[84] The style she developed mixed reality with surrealistic elements and often depicted pain and death.[87]
One of Kahlo's earliest champions was Surrealist artist André Breton, who claimed her as part of the movement as an artist who had supposedly developed her style "in total ignorance of the ideas that motivated the activities of my friends and myself".
Mexicanidad
Similarly to many other contemporary Mexican artists, Kahlo was heavily influenced by Mexicanidad, a romantic nationalism that had developed in the aftermath of the revolution.[95][84] The Mexicanidad movement claimed to resist the "mindset of cultural inferiority" created by colonialism, and placed special importance on indigenous cultures.[96] Before the revolution, Mexican folk culture – a mixture of indigenous and European elements – was disparaged by the elite, who claimed to have purely European ancestry and regarded Europe as the definition of civilization which Mexico should imitate.[97] Kahlo's artistic ambition was to paint for the Mexican people, and she stated that she wished "to be worthy, with my paintings, of the people to whom I belong and to the ideas which strengthen me".[92] To enforce this image, she preferred to conceal the education she had received in art from her father and Ferdinand Fernandez and at the preparatory school. Instead, she cultivated an image of herself as a "self-taught and naive artist".[98]
When Kahlo began her career as an artist in the 1920s,
Many of Kahlo's self-portraits mimic the classic bust-length portraits that were fashionable during the colonial era, but they subverted the format by depicting their subject as less attractive than in reality.[106] She concentrated more frequently on this format towards the end of the 1930s, thus reflecting changes in Mexican society. Increasingly disillusioned by the legacy of the revolution and struggling to cope with the effects of the Great Depression, Mexicans were abandoning the ethos of socialism for individualism.[107] This was reflected by the "personality cults", which developed around Mexican film stars such as Dolores del Río.[107] According to Schaefer, Kahlo's "mask-like self-portraits echo the contemporaneous fascination with the cinematic close-up of feminine beauty, as well as the mystique of female otherness expressed in film noir."[107] By always repeating the same facial features, Kahlo drew from the depiction of goddesses and saints in indigenous and Catholic cultures.[108]
Out of specific Mexican folk artists, Kahlo was especially influenced by Hermenegildo Bustos, whose works portrayed Mexican culture and peasant life, and José Guadalupe Posada, who depicted accidents and crime in satiric manner.[109] She also derived inspiration from the works of Hieronymus Bosch, whom she called a "man of genius", and Pieter Bruegel the Elder, whose focus on peasant life was similar to her own interest in the Mexican people.[110] Another influence was the poet Rosario Castellanos, whose poems often chronicle a woman's lot in the patriarchal Mexican society, a concern with the female body, and tell stories of immense physical and emotional pain.[86]
Symbolism and iconography
Kahlo's paintings often feature root imagery, with roots growing out of her body to tie her to the ground. This reflects in a positive sense the theme of personal growth; in a negative sense of being trapped in a particular place, time and situation; and in an ambiguous sense of how memories of the past influence the present for good and/or ill.[111] In My Grandparents and I, Kahlo painted herself as a ten-year old, holding a ribbon that grows from an ancient tree that bears the portraits of her grandparents and other ancestors while her left foot is a tree trunk growing out of the ground, reflecting Kahlo's view of humanity's unity with the earth and her own sense of unity with Mexico.[112] In Kahlo's paintings, trees serve as symbols of hope, of strength and of a continuity that transcends generations.[113] Additionally, hair features as a symbol of growth and of the feminine in Kahlo's paintings and in Self-Portrait with Cropped Hair, Kahlo painted herself wearing a man's suit and shorn of her long hair, which she had just cut off.[114] Kahlo holds the scissors with one hand menacingly close to her genitals, which can be interpreted as a threat to Rivera – whose frequent unfaithfulness infuriated her – and/or a threat to harm her own body like she has attacked her own hair, a sign of the way that women often project their fury against others onto themselves.[115] Moreover, the picture reflects Kahlo's frustration not only with Rivera, but also her unease with the patriarchal values of Mexico as the scissors symbolize a malevolent sense of masculinity that threatens to "cut up" women, both metaphorically and literally.[115] In Mexico, the traditional Spanish values of machismo were widely embraced, but Kahlo was always uncomfortable with machismo.[115]
As she suffered for the rest of her life from the bus accident in her youth, Kahlo spent much of her life in hospitals and undergoing surgery, much of it performed by quacks who Kahlo believed could restore her back to where she had been before the accident.[112] Many of Kahlo's paintings are concerned with medical imagery, which is presented in terms of pain and hurt, featuring Kahlo bleeding and displaying her open wounds.[112] Many of Kahlo's medical paintings, especially dealing with childbirth and miscarriage, have a strong sense of guilt, of a sense of living one's life at the expense of another who has died so one might live.[113]
Although Kahlo featured herself and events from her life in her paintings, they were often ambiguous in meaning.[116] She did not use them only to show her subjective experience but to raise questions about Mexican society and the construction of identity within it, particularly gender, race, and social class.[117] Historian Liza Bakewell has stated that Kahlo "recognized the conflicts brought on by revolutionary ideology":
What was it to be a Mexican? – modern, yet pre-Columbian; young, yet old; anti-Catholic yet Catholic; Western, yet New World; developing, yet underdeveloped; independent, yet colonized; mestizo, yet not Spanish nor Indian.[118]
To explore these questions through her art, Kahlo developed a complex iconography, extensively employing pre-Columbian and Christian symbols and mythology in her paintings.
In addition to Aztec legends, Kahlo frequently depicted two central female figures from Mexican folklore in her paintings:
Kahlo often featured her own body in her paintings, presenting it in varying states and disguises: as wounded, broken, as a child, or clothed in different outfits, such as the Tehuana costume, a man's suit, or a European dress.[126] She used her body as a metaphor to explore questions on societal roles.[127] Her paintings often depicted the female body in an unconventional manner, such as during miscarriages, and childbirth or cross-dressing.[128] In depicting the female body in graphic manner, Kahlo positioned the viewer in the role of the voyeur, "making it virtually impossible for a viewer not to assume a consciously held position in response".[129]
According to Nancy Cooey, Kahlo made herself through her paintings into "the main character of her own mythology, as a woman, as a Mexican, and as a suffering person ... She knew how to convert each into a symbol or sign capable of expressing the enormous spiritual resistance of humanity and its splendid sexuality".[130] Similarly, Nancy Deffebach has stated that Kahlo "created herself as a subject who was female, Mexican, modern, and powerful", and who diverged from the usual dichotomy of roles of mother/whore allowed to women in Mexican society.[131] Due to her gender and divergence from the muralist tradition, Kahlo's paintings were treated as less political and more naïve and subjective than those of her male counterparts up until the late 1980s.[132] According to art historian Joan Borsa,
the critical reception of her exploration of subjectivity and personal history has all too frequently denied or de-emphasized the politics involved in examining one's own location, inheritances and social conditions ... Critical responses continue to gloss over Kahlo's reworking of the personal, ignoring or minimizing her interrogation of sexuality, sexual difference, marginality, cultural identity, female subjectivity, politics and power.[82]
Personal life
1907–1924: Family and childhood
Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo y Calderón
Kahlo later described the atmosphere in her childhood home as often "very, very sad".[145] Both parents were often sick,[146] and their marriage was devoid of love.[147] Her relationship with her mother, Matilde, was extremely tense.[148] Kahlo described her mother as "kind, active and intelligent, but also calculating, cruel and fanatically religious".[148] Her father Guillermo's photography business suffered greatly during the Mexican Revolution, as the overthrown government had commissioned works from him, and the long civil war limited the number of private clients.[146]
When Kahlo was six years old, she contracted polio, which eventually made her right leg grow shorter and thinner than the left.[149][b] The illness forced her to be isolated from her peers for months, and she was bullied.[152] While the experience made her reclusive,[145] it made her Guillermo's favorite due to their shared experience of living with disability.[153] Kahlo credited him for making her childhood "marvelous ... he was an immense example to me of tenderness, of work (photographer and also painter), and above all in understanding for all my problems." He taught her about literature, nature, and philosophy, and encouraged her to play sports to regain her strength, despite the fact that most physical exercise was seen as unsuitable for girls.[154] He also taught her photography, and she began to help him retouch, develop, and color photographs.[155]
Due to polio, Kahlo began school later than her peers.[156] Along with her younger sister Cristina, she attended the local kindergarten and primary school in Coyoacán and was homeschooled for the fifth and sixth grades.[157] While Cristina followed their sisters into a convent school, Kahlo was enrolled in a German school due to their father's wishes.[158] She was soon expelled for disobedience and was sent to a vocational teachers school.[157] Her stay at the school was brief, as she was sexually abused by a female teacher.[157]
In 1922, Kahlo was accepted to the elite
1925–1930: Bus accident and marriage to Diego Rivera
On 17 September 1925, Kahlo and her boyfriend, Arias, were on their way home from school. They boarded one bus, but they got off the bus to look for an umbrella that Kahlo had left behind. They then boarded a second bus, which was crowded, and they sat in the back. The driver attempted to pass an oncoming electric streetcar. The streetcar crashed into the side of the wooden bus, dragging it a few feet. Several passengers were killed in the accident. While Arias suffered minor injuries, Frida was impaled with an iron handrail that went through her pelvis. She later described the injury as "the way a sword pierces a bull". The handrail was removed by Arias and others, which was incredibly painful for Kahlo.[165][166][167]
Kahlo suffered many injuries: her
The accident ended Kahlo's dreams of becoming a physician and caused her pain and illness for the rest of her life; her friend Andrés Henestrosa stated that Kahlo "lived dying".[171] Kahlo's bed rest was over by late 1927, and she began socializing with her old schoolfriends, who were now at university and involved in student politics. She joined the Mexican Communist Party (PCM) and was introduced to a circle of political activists and artists, including the exiled Cuban communist Julio Antonio Mella and the Italian-American photographer Tina Modotti.[172]
At one of Modotti's parties in June 1928, Kahlo was introduced to Diego Rivera.[173] They had met briefly in 1922 when he was painting a mural at her school.[174] Shortly after their introduction in 1928, Kahlo asked him to judge whether her paintings showed enough talent for her to pursue a career as an artist.[175] Rivera recalled being impressed by her works, stating that they showed "an unusual energy of expression, precise delineation of character, and true severity ... They had a fundamental plastic honesty, and an artistic personality of their own ... It was obvious to me that this girl was an authentic artist".[176]
Kahlo soon began a relationship with Rivera, who was 21 years her senior and had two common-law wives.[177] Kahlo and Rivera were married in a civil ceremony at the town hall of Coyoacán on 21 August 1929.[178] Her mother opposed the marriage, and both parents referred to it as a "marriage between an elephant and a dove", referring to the couple's differences in size; Rivera was tall and overweight while Kahlo was petite and fragile.[179] Regardless, her father approved of Rivera, who was wealthy and therefore able to support Kahlo, who could not work and had to receive expensive medical treatment.[180] The wedding was reported by the Mexican and international press,[181] and the marriage was subject to constant media attention in Mexico in the following years, with articles referring to the couple as simply "Diego and Frida".[182]
Soon after the marriage, in late 1929, Kahlo and Rivera moved to
During the civil war Morelos had seen some of the heaviest fighting, and life in the Spanish-style city of Cuernavaca sharpened Kahlo's sense of a Mexican identity and history.
1931–1933: Travels in the United States
After Rivera had completed the commission in Cuernavaca in late 1930, he and Kahlo moved to
Kahlo and Rivera returned to Mexico for the summer of 1931, and in the fall traveled to New York City for the opening of Rivera's retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA). In April 1932, they headed to Detroit, where Rivera had been commissioned to paint murals for the Detroit Institute of Arts.[191] By this time, Kahlo had become bolder in her interactions with the press, impressing journalists with her fluency in English and stating on her arrival to the city that she was the greater artist of the two of them.[192]
"Of course he [Rivera] does well for a little boy, but it is I who am the big artist"
— Frida Kahlo in interview with the Detroit News, 2 February 1933.[193]
The year spent in Detroit was a difficult time for Kahlo. Although she had enjoyed visiting San Francisco and New York City, she disliked aspects of American society, which she regarded as colonialist, as well as most Americans, whom she found "boring".
External images | |
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Henry Ford Hospital (1932) | |
Self-portrait on the Border of Mexico and the United States (1932) | |
My Dress Hangs There (1932) | |
My Birth (1932) |
Kahlo and Rivera returned to New York in March 1933, for he had been commissioned to paint a mural for the
1934–1949: La Casa Azul and declining health
Back in Mexico City, Kahlo and Rivera moved into a new house in the wealthy neighborhood of San Ángel.[201] Commissioned from Le Corbusier's student Juan O'Gorman, it consisted of two sections joined by a bridge; Kahlo's was painted blue and Rivera's pink and white.[202] The bohemian residence became an important meeting place for artists and political activists from Mexico and abroad.[203]
Kahlo once again experienced health problems – undergoing an appendectomy, two abortions, and the amputation of gangrenous toes[204][151] – and her marriage to Rivera had become strained. He was not happy to be back in Mexico and blamed Kahlo for their return.[205] While he had been unfaithful to her before, he now embarked on an affair with her younger sister Cristina, which deeply hurt Kahlo's feelings.[206] After discovering the affair in early 1935, she moved to an apartment in central Mexico City and considered divorcing him.[207] She also had an affair of her own with American artist Isamu Noguchi.[208]
Kahlo was reconciled with Rivera and Cristina later in 1935 and moved back to San Ángel.[209] She became a loving aunt to Cristina's children, Isolda and Antonio.[210] Despite the reconciliation, both Rivera and Kahlo continued their infidelities.[211] She also resumed her political activities in 1936, joining the Fourth International and becoming a founding member of a solidarity committee to provide aid to the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War.[212] She and Rivera successfully petitioned the Mexican government to grant asylum to former Soviet leader Leon Trotsky and offered La Casa Azul for him and his wife Natalia Sedova as a residence.[213] The couple lived there from January 1937 until April 1939, with Kahlo and Trotsky not only becoming good friends but also having a brief affair.[214] Kahlo painted Self-Portrait Dedicated to Leon Trotsky in 1937 during their time together in Mexico City, including a written inscription to Trotsky in the painting on a letter that Kahlo's figure holds.[215]
External images | |
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A Few Small Nips (1935) | |
My Nurse and I (1937) | |
Four Inhabitants of Mexico (1938) |
After opening an exhibition in Paris, Kahlo sailed back to New York.[216] She was eager to be reunited with Muray, but he decided to end their affair, as he had met another woman whom he was planning to marry.[217] Kahlo traveled back to Mexico City, where Rivera requested a divorce from her. The exact reasons for his decision are unknown, but he stated publicly that it was merely a "matter of legal convenience in the style of modern times ... there are no sentimental, artistic, or economic reasons".[218] According to their friends, the divorce was mainly caused by their mutual infidelities.[219] He and Kahlo were granted a divorce in November 1939, but remained friendly; she continued to manage his finances and correspondence.[220]
Following her separation from Rivera, Kahlo moved back to La Casa Azul and, determined to earn her own living, began another productive period as an artist, inspired by her experiences abroad.[221] Encouraged by the recognition she was gaining, she moved from using the small and more intimate tin sheets she had used since 1932 to large canvases, as they were easier to exhibit.[222] She also adopted a more sophisticated technique, limited the graphic details, and began to produce more quarter-length portraits, which were easier to sell.[223] She painted several of her most famous pieces during this period, such as The Two Fridas (1939), Self-portrait with Cropped Hair (1940), The Wounded Table (1940), and Self-Portrait with Thorn Necklace and Hummingbird (1940). Three exhibitions featured her works in 1940: the fourth International Surrealist Exhibition in Mexico City, the Golden Gate International Exposition in San Francisco, and Twenty Centuries of Mexican Art in MoMA in New York.[224][225]
On 21 August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Coyoacán, where he had continued to live after leaving La Casa Azul.[226] Kahlo was briefly suspected of being involved, as she knew the murderer, and was arrested and held for two days with her sister Cristina.[227] The following month, Kahlo traveled to San Francisco for medical treatment for back pain and a fungal infection on her hand.[228] Her continuously fragile health had increasingly declined since her divorce and was exacerbated by her heavy consumption of alcohol.[229]
Rivera was also in San Francisco after he fled Mexico City following Trotsky's murder and accepted a commission.[230] Although Kahlo had a relationship with art dealer Heinz Berggruen during her visit to San Francisco,[231] she and Rivera were reconciled.[232] They remarried in a simple civil ceremony on 8 December 1940.[233] Kahlo and Rivera returned to Mexico soon after their wedding. The union was less turbulent than before for its first five years.[234] Both were more independent,[235] and while La Casa Azul was their primary residence, Rivera retained the San Ángel house for use as his studio and second apartment.[236] Both continued having extramarital affairs; Kahlo, being bisexual, had affairs with both men and women, with evidence suggesting her male lovers were more important to Kahlo than her female lovers.[235][237]
Despite the medical treatment she had received in San Francisco, Kahlo's health problems continued throughout the 1940s. Due to her spinal problems, she wore twenty-eight separate supportive corsets, varying from steel and leather to plaster, between 1940 and 1954.
While Kahlo was gaining recognition in her home country, her health continued to decline. By the mid-1940s, her back had worsened to the point that she could no longer sit or stand continuously.[241] In June 1945, she traveled to New York for an operation which fused a bone graft and a steel support to her spine to straighten it.[242] The difficult operation was a failure.[70] According to biographer Hayden Herrera, Kahlo also sabotaged her recovery by not resting as required and by once physically re-opening her wounds in a fit of anger.[70] Her paintings from this period, such as The Broken Column (1944), Without Hope (1945), Tree of Hope, Stand Fast (1946), and The Wounded Deer (1946), reflect her declining health.[70]
1950–1954: Last years and death
In 1950, Kahlo spent most of the year in Hospital ABC in Mexico City, where she underwent a new bone graft surgery on her spine.[243] It caused a difficult infection and necessitated several follow-up surgeries.[71] After being discharged, she was mostly confined to La Casa Azul, using a wheelchair and crutches to be ambulatory.[71] During these final years of her life, Kahlo dedicated her time to political causes to the extent that her health allowed. She had rejoined the Mexican Communist Party in 1948[73] and campaigned for peace, for example, by collecting signatures for the Stockholm Appeal.[244]
Kahlo's right leg was amputated at the knee due to gangrene in August 1953.[80] She became severely depressed and anxious, and her dependence on painkillers escalated.[80] When Rivera began yet another affair, she attempted suicide by overdose.[80] She wrote in her diary in February 1954, "They amputated my leg six months ago, they have given me centuries of torture and at moments I almost lost my reason. I keep on wanting to kill myself. Diego is what keeps me from it, through my vain idea that he would miss me. ... But never in my life have I suffered more. I will wait a while..."[245]
In her last days, Kahlo was mostly bedridden with bronchopneumonia, though she made a public appearance on 2 July 1954, participating with Rivera in a demonstration against the CIA invasion of Guatemala.[246] She seemed to anticipate her death, as she spoke about it to visitors and drew skeletons and angels in her diary.[247] The last drawing was a black angel, which biographer Hayden Herrera interprets as the Angel of Death.[247] It was accompanied by the last words she wrote, "I joyfully await the exit – and I hope never to return – Frida" ("Espero Alegre la Salida – y Espero no Volver jamás").[247]
The demonstration worsened her illness, and on the night of 12 July 1954, Kahlo had a high fever and was in extreme pain.[247] At approximately 6 a.m. on 13 July 1954, her nurse found her dead in her bed.[248] Kahlo was 47 years old. The official cause of death was pulmonary embolism, although no autopsy was performed.[247] Herrera has argued that Kahlo, in fact, committed suicide.[84][247] The nurse, who counted Kahlo's painkillers to monitor her drug use, stated that Kahlo had taken an overdose the night she died. She had been prescribed a maximum dose of seven pills but had taken eleven.[249] She had also given Rivera a wedding anniversary present that evening, over a month in advance.[249]
On the evening of 13 July, Kahlo's body was taken to the Palacio de Bellas Artes, where it lay in state under a Communist flag.[250] The following day, it was carried to the Panteón Civil de Dolores, where friends and family attended an informal funeral ceremony. Hundreds of admirers stood outside.[250] In accordance with her wishes, Kahlo was cremated.[250] Rivera, who stated that her death was "the most tragic day of my life", died three years later, in 1957.[250] Kahlo's ashes are displayed in a pre-Columbian urn at La Casa Azul, which opened as a museum in 1958.[250]
Posthumous recognition and "Fridamania"
"The twenty-first-century Frida is both a star – a commercial property complete with fan clubs and merchandising – and an embodiment of the hopes and aspirations of a near-religious group of followers. This wild, hybrid Frida, a mixture of tragic bohemian,
Virgin of Guadalupe, revolutionary heroine and Salma Hayek, has taken such great hold on the public imagination that it tends to obscure the historically retrievable Kahlo."[251]
– Art historian Oriana Baddeley on Kahlo
The
Two events were instrumental in raising interest in her life and art for the general public outside Mexico. The first was a joint retrospective of her paintings and Tina Modotti's photographs at the Whitechapel Gallery in London, which was curated and organized by Peter Wollen and Laura Mulvey.[259] It opened in May 1982, and later traveled to Sweden, Germany, the United States, and Mexico.[260] The second was the publication of art historian Hayden Herrera's international bestseller Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo in 1983.[261][262]
By 1984, Kahlo's reputation as an artist had grown to such extent that Mexico declared her works part of the national cultural heritage, prohibiting their export from the country.[258][263] As a result, her paintings seldom appear in international auctions, and comprehensive retrospectives are rare.[263] Regardless, her paintings have still broken records for Latin American art in the 1990s and 2000s. In 1990, she became the first Latin American artist to break the one-million-dollar threshold when Diego and I was auctioned by Sotheby's for $1,430,000.[258] In 2006, Roots (1943) reached US$5.6 million,[264] and in 2016, Two Nudes in a Forest (1939) sold for $8 million.[265]
Kahlo has attracted popular interest to the extent that the term "Fridamania" has been coined to describe the phenomenon.
Kahlo's popular appeal is seen to stem first and foremost from a fascination with her life story, especially its painful and tragic aspects. She has become an icon for several minority groups and political movements, such as feminists, the
Kahlo's posthumous popularity and the commercialization of her image have drawn criticism from many scholars and cultural commenters, who think that, not only have many facets of her life been mythologized, but the dramatic aspects of her biography have also overshadowed her art, producing a simplistic reading of her works in which they are reduced to literal descriptions of events in her life.[276] According to journalist Stephanie Mencimer, Kahlo "has been embraced as a poster child for every possible politically correct cause" and
like a game of telephone, the more Kahlo's story has been told, the more it has been distorted, omitting uncomfortable details that show her to be a far more complex and flawed figure than the movies and cookbooks suggest. This elevation of the artist over the art diminishes the public understanding of Kahlo's place in history and overshadows the deeper and more disturbing truths in her work. Even more troubling, though, is that by airbrushing her biography, Kahlo's promoters have set her up for the inevitable fall so typical of women artists, that time when the contrarians will band together and take sport in shooting down her inflated image, and with it, her art."[269]
Baddeley has compared the interest in Kahlo's life to the interest in the troubled life of Vincent van Gogh but has also stated that a crucial difference between the two is that most people associate Van Gogh with his paintings, whereas Kahlo is usually signified by an image of herself – an intriguing commentary on the way male and female artists are regarded.[277] Similarly, Peter Wollen has compared Kahlo's cult-like following to that of Sylvia Plath, whose "unusually complex and contradictory art" has been overshadowed by simplified focus on her life.[278]
Commemorations and characterizations
Kahlo's legacy has been commemorated in several ways.
Kahlo received several commemorations on the centenary of her birth in 2007, and some on the centenary of the birthyear she attested to, 2010. These included the Bank of Mexico releasing a new MXN$ 500-peso note, featuring Kahlo's painting titled Love's Embrace of the Universe, Earth, (Mexico), I, Diego, and Mr. Xólotl (1949) on the reverse of the note and Diego Rivera on the front.[283] The largest retrospective of her works at Mexico City's Palacio de Bellas Artes attracted approximately 75,000 visitors.[284]
In addition to other tributes, Kahlo's life and art have inspired artists in various fields. In 1984,
Kahlo has also been the subject of several stage performances.
Kahlo was the main character in several plays, including Dolores C. Sendler's Goodbye, My Friduchita (1999),[303] Robert Lepage and Sophie Faucher's La Casa Azul (2002),[304] Humberto Robles' Frida Kahlo: Viva la vida! (2009),[305] and Rita Ortez Provost's Tree of Hope (2014).[306]
In 2018, Mattel unveiled seventeen new Barbie dolls in celebration of International Women's Day, including one of Kahlo. Critics objected to the doll's slim waist and noticeably missing unibrow.[307]
In 2014 Kahlo was one of the inaugural honorees in the
In 2018, San Francisco Board of Supervisors unanimously voted to rename Phelan Avenue to Frida Kahlo Way. Frida Kahlo Way is the home of City College of San Francisco and Archbishop Riordan High School.[311]
In 2019, Frida was featured on a mural painted by Rafael Blanco in downtown Reno, Nevada.
In 2019, Frida's “Fantasmones Siniestros” (“Sinister Ghosts”) was burned to ashes, publicizing an
In 2022, as part of a collaboration with Centre Pompidou, Swatch released a watch based on The Frame.[313][314]
Solo exhibitions
- 4 January 2022–present: Frida Kahlo: The Life of an Icon at
- 8 February–12 May 2019: Frida Kahlo: Appearances Can Be Deceiving at the Brooklyn Museum. This was the largest U.S. exhibition in a decade devoted solely to the painter and the only U.S. show to feature her Tehuana clothing, hand-painted corsets and other never-before-seen items that had been locked away after the artist's death and rediscovered in 2004.
- 16 June–18 November 2018: Frida Kahlo: Making Her Self Up at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.[317] The basis for the later Brooklyn Museum exhibit.
- 3 February–30 April 2016: Frida Kahlo: Paintings and Graphic Art From Mexican Collections at the Faberge Museum, St. Petersburg. Russia's first retrospective of Kahlo's work.
- 27 October 2007–20 January 2008: Frida Kahlo an exhibition at the Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Philadelphia Museum of Art, 20 February–18 May 2008; and the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, 16 June–28 September 2008.
- 1–15 November 1938: Frida's first solo exhibit and New York debut at the Museum of Modern Art. Georgia O'Keeffe, Isamu Noguchi, and other prominent American artists attended the opening; approximately half of the paintings were sold.
See also
References
Informational notes
- Hitler's rule.[133]
- ^ Given Kahlo's later problems with scoliosis and with her hips and limbs, neurologist Budrys Valmantas has argued that she had a congenital condition, spina bifida, which was diagnosed by Dr. Leo Eloesser when she was a young adult.[150] Psychologist and art historian Dr. Salomon Grimberg disagrees, stating that Kahlo's problems were instead the result of not wearing an orthopedic shoe on her affected right leg, which led to damage to her hips and spine.[151]
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External links
- Official website
- Frida Kahlo in the collection of The Museum of Modern Art
- Frida Kahlo. Museum of Fine Arts, Houston: ICAA.
- "Frida Kahlo" (mp3). In Our Time. BBC Radio 4. 9 July 2015.
- Kahlo at the National Museum of Women in the Arts
- Kahlo's paintings at the Art History Archive
- Kahlo's painting at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art
- This could be Kahlo's voice according to the Department of Culture in Mexico
- The Frida Kahlo papers at the National Museum of Women in the Arts