Gigantopithecus

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Gigantopithecus
Temporal range:
Ma
↓
Reconstructed Gigantopithecus mandible at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Ohio
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Hominidae
Tribe: †
Sivapithecini
Genus: †Gigantopithecus
Species:
†G. blacki
Binomial name
†Gigantopithecus blacki

Gigantopithecus (

hominin, a member of the human line, but it is now thought to be closely allied with orangutans, classified in the subfamily Ponginae
.

Gigantopithecus has traditionally been restored as a massive, gorilla-like ape, potentially 200–300 kg (440–660 lb) when alive, but the paucity of remains make total size estimates highly speculative. The species may have been sexually dimorphic, with males much bigger than females. The incisors are reduced and the canines appear to have functioned like cheek teeth (premolars and molars). The premolars are high-crowned, and the fourth premolar is very molar-like. The molars are the largest of any known ape, and have a relatively flat surface. Gigantopithecus had the thickest enamel by absolute measure of any ape, up to 6 mm (a quarter of an inch) in some areas, though this is only fairly thick when tooth size is taken into account.

Gigantopithecus appears to have been a

archaic human activity. Gigantopithecus has become popular in cryptozoology circles as the identity of the Tibetan yeti or the American bigfoot
, apelike creatures in local folklore.

Discovery

Research history

Friedemann Schrenk [de] holding the holotype Gigantopithecus blacki molar

Gigantopithecus blacki was named by anthropologist

University of Utrecht.[5][6]

In 1955, a survey team that was led by Chinese palaeontologist

Liucheng farmer Xiuhuai Qin discovered more teeth and the first mandible on his field. From 1957 to 1963, the IVPP survey team carried out excavations in this area and recovered two more mandibles and more than 1,000 teeth.[5][7][8][6]

Confirmed Gigantopithecus remains have since been found in 16 different sites across southern China. The northernmost sites are

Yanliang, Central China.[10] Indicated by extensive rodent gnawing marks, teeth primarily accumulated in caves likely due to porcupine activity. Porcupines gnaw on bones to obtain nutrients necessary for quill growth, and can haul large bones into their underground dens and consume them entirely, except the hard, enamel-capped crowns of teeth. This may explain why teeth are typically found in great quantity, and why remains other than teeth are so rare.[5]

Classification

G. blacki

Gigantopithecus is closely allied with orangutans (a male Bornean orangutan above)

In 1935, von Koenigswald considered Gigantopithecus to be closely allied with the

Out of Africa hypothesis overturned the Out of Asia and multiregional hypotheses, firmly placing humanity's origins in Africa.[5][6]

Gigantopithecus is now classified in the

synapomorphies) linking Gigantopithecus and orangutans due to fragmentary remains, with the main morphological argument being its close affinities to Sivapithecus, which is better established as a pongine based on skull features. In 2017, Chinese palaeoanthropologist Yingqi Zhang and American anthropologist Terry Harrison suggested that Gigantopithecus is most closely allied to the Chinese Lufengpithecus, which went extinct 4 million years prior to Gigantopithecus.[5]

In 2019,

great apes about 26–17.7 million years ago.[14]

Cladogram according to Zhang and Harrison, 2017:[5]

Hominoidea
 (apes)

"G. bilaspurensis"

In 1969, an 8.6 million year old mandible from the

monotypic (with only one species), G. blacki.[17][5]

Description

Reconstruction of Gigantopithecus with a speculative large build, gorilla-like posture, and orange hair

Size

Total size estimates are highly speculative because only tooth and jaw elements are known, and molar size and total body weight do not always correlate, such as in the case of postcanine megadontia hominins (small-bodied primate exhibiting massive molars and thick enamel).[18] In 1946, Weidenreich hypothesised that Gigantopithecus was twice the size of male gorillas.[12] In 1957, Pei estimated a total height of about 3.7 m (12 ft). In 1970, Simons and American palaeontologist Peter Ettel approximated a height of almost 2.7 m (9 ft) and a weight of up to 270 kg (600 lb), which is about 40% heavier than the average male gorilla. In 1979, American anthropologist Alfred E. Johnson Jr. used the dimensions of gorillas to estimate a femur length of 54.4 cm (1 ft 9 in) and humerus length of 62.7 cm (2 ft 1 in) for Gigantopithecus, about 20–25% longer than those of gorillas.[19] In 2017, Chinese palaeoanthropologist Yingqi Zhang and American anthropologist Terry Harrison suggested a body mass of 200–300 kg (440–660 lb), though conceded that it is impossible to obtain a reliable body mass estimate without more complete remains.[5]

The average maximum length of the upper canines for presumed males and females are 21.1 mm (0.83 in) and 15.4 mm (0.61 in), respectively, and Mandible III (presumed male) is 40% larger than Mandible I (presumed female). These imply sexual dimorphism, with males being larger than females. Such a high degree of dimorphism is only surpassed by gorillas among modern apes in canine size, and is surpassed by none for mandibular disparity.[5]

Teeth and jaws

Like other apes, Gigantopithecus had a

tooth crown (the visible part of the tooth). These teeth were closely packed together.[5]

In the upper jaw, the first premolar (P3) averages 20.3 mm × 15.2 mm (0.8 in × 0.6 in) in surface area, the second premolar (P4) 15.2 mm × 16.4 mm (0.60 in × 0.65 in), the first and/or second molars (M1/2, which are difficult to distinguish) 19.8 mm × 17.5 mm (0.78 in × 0.69 in), and the third molar (M3) 20.3 mm × 17.3 mm (0.80 in × 0.68 in). In the lower jaw, P3 averages 15.1 mm × 20.3 mm (0.59 in × 0.80 in), P4 13.7 mm × 20.3 mm (0.54 in × 0.80 in), M1/2 18.1 mm × 20.8 mm (0.71 in × 0.82 in), and M3 16.9 mm × 19.6 mm (0.67 in × 0.77 in). The molars are the biggest of any known ape.[5] Teeth continually evolved to become larger and larger.[23] The premolars are high-crowned, and the lower have two tooth roots, whereas the upper have three. The lower molars are low-crowned, long and narrow, and waist at the midline—which is more pronounced in the lower molars—with low-lying and bulbous cusps and rounded-off crests.[5]

Gigantopithecus molar

The tooth enamel on the molars is in absolute measure the thickest of any known ape, averaging 2.5–2.9 mm (0.098–0.114 in) in three different molars, and over 6 mm (0.24 in) on the tongue-side (lingual) cusps of an upper molar.[22] This has attracted comparisons with the extinct Paranthropus hominins, which had extremely large molars and thick enamel for their size.[22][20] However, in relation to the tooth's size, enamel thickness for Gigantopithecus overlaps with that of several other living and extinct apes. Like orangutans and potentially all pongines (though unlike African apes) the Gigantopithecus molar had a large and flat (tabular) grinding surface, with an even enamel coating, and short dentine horns (the areas of the dentine layer which project upwards into the top enamel layer).[18] The molars are the most hypsodont (where the enamel extends beyond the gums) of any ape.[5]

Palaeobiology

Diet

Gigantopithecus mandible, top view
Scale 3 cm (1.2 in)

Gigantopithecus is considered to have been a

granivores). Gigantopithecus teeth have a markedly lower rate of pitting (caused by eating small, hard objects) than orangutans, more similar to the rate seen in chimpanzees, which could indicate a similarly generalist diet.[5]

The molar-like premolars, large molars, and long rooted cheeked teeth could point to chewing, crushing, and grinding of bulky and fibrous materials.

mulberry, breadfruit and banyan. This suggests that fruit was a significant dietary component for at least this population of Gigantopithecus.[26]

The 400,000–320,000 year old

Middle Pleistocene teeth from Hejiang Cave in southeastern China (near the time of extinction) show some differences from Early Pleistocene material from other sites, which could potentially indicate that the Hejiang Gigantopithecus were a specialised form adapting to a changing environment with different food resources. The Hejiang teeth display a less level (more crenulated) outer enamel surface due to the presence of secondary crests emanating from the paracone and protocone on the side of the molar closer to the midline (medially), as well as sharper major crests. That is, the teeth are not as flat.[10][28][29]

In 1957, based on hoofed animal remains in a cave located in a seemingly inaccessible mountain, Pei had believed that Gigantopithecus was a cave-dwelling predator and carried these animals in.[30] This hypothesis is no longer considered viable because its dental anatomy is consistent with herbivory.[24] In 1975, American palaeoanthropologist Tim D. White drew similarities between the jaws and dentition of Gigantopithecus and those of the giant panda, and suggested they both occupied the same niche as bamboo specialists.[31] This garnered support from some subsequent researchers, but thicker enamel and hypsodonty in Gigantopithecus could suggest different functionality for these teeth.[22]

The species' reliance on barks and twigs for nutrition led to its demise.[32]

Growth

A Gigantopithecus permanent third molar, based on an approximate 600–800 days required for the enamel on the cusps to form (which is quite long), was estimated to have taken four years to form, which is within the range (albeit, far upper range) of what is exhibited in humans and chimpanzees. Like many other fossil apes, the rate of enamel formation near the enamel-dentine junction (dentine is the nerve-filled layer beneath the enamel) was estimated to begin at about four μm per day; this is seen in only baby teeth for modern apes.[20]

Protein sequencing of Gigantopithecus enamel identified

biomineralisation of enamel during prolonged amelogenesis (enamel growth).[14]

Pathology

Gigantopithecus molars have a high cavity rate of 11%, which could mean fruit was commonly included in its diet.[5][26] The molars from Gigantopithecus Cave frequently exhibit pitting enamel hypoplasia, where the enamel improperly forms with pits and grooves. This can be caused by malnutrition during growth years, which could point to periodic food shortages, though it can also be induced by other factors.[26] Specimen PA1601-1 from Yanliang Cave shows evidence of tooth loss of the right second molar before the eruption of the neighboring third molar (which grew slantedly), which suggests this individual was able to survive for a long time despite impaired chewing abilities.[10]

Society

The high levels of sexual dimorphism could indicate relatively intense male–male competition, though considering the upper canines only projected slightly farther than the cheek teeth, canine display was probably not very important in agonistic behaviour, unlike modern non-human apes.[5]

Palaeoecology

Dinghu Mountain (above) may be a modern analogue to Early Pleistocene Gigantopithecus habitats.[5]

Gigantopithecus remains are generally found in what were subtropical evergreen broadleaf forest in South China, except in Hainan which featured a tropical rainforest. Carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of Early Pleistocene enamel suggests Gigantopithecus inhabited dense, humid, closed-canopy forest. Queque Cave featured a mixed deciduous and evergreen forest dominated by birch, oak, and chinkapin, as well as several low-lying herbs and ferns.[5]

The "Gigantopithecus

Oriental realms, featuring, alongside the typical Gigantopithecus fauna, more boreal animals such as hedgehogs, hyenas, horses, the bovid Leptobos, and pikas.[33]

Extinction

Over the course of the Pleistocene, the environment-specialized Gigantopithecus showed signs of dietary changes based on dental morphologies in response to ecological pressure. Other

hominids coexistent with it show few major morphological changes in comparison.[5] In the late Middle Pleistocene and early Middle Pleistocene, global trends indicate strong glaciation cycles, colder and/or wetter climates, increased seasonality, and decline in C4 plant abundance.[37] Intensified winter and summer monsoon strength is also cited to be another major environmental force in the Middle Pleistocene of China.[23] Stratigraphic evidence suggests that it contracted severely in range from the provinces of Guangxi, Guizhou, and Hainan to just the Guangxi region by 420–330 ka. The population of the giant ape dwindled further by 300 ka as a response to its declining forest refugia resulting from grassland expansion. The extinction window of Gigantopithecus is estimated to be between 295,000 to 215,000 years ago in correlation with increased seasonality and major environmental turnovers.[4] Savannas remained the dominant habitat of Southeast Asia until the Late Pleistocene.[38][37]

The extinction of the specialized Gigantopithecus and survival of Pongo weidenreichi plus Homo in the Middle Pleistocene is thought to have been the result of the former having struggled to adapt to major environmental changes compared to the latter two. P. weidenreichi likely was more flexible in seasonal dietary habits whereas Homo was a generalist and therefore was able to adapt to mixed habitats stemming from Middle Pleistocene environmental changes.[4] Some authors had suggested that H. erectus was a possible factor in the extinction of Gigantopithecus.[39] Human activity in southern China is known as early as 800,000 years ago but does not become prevalent until after the extinction of Gigantopithecus, so it is unclear if pressures such as competition over resources or overhunting were factors.[35] Zhang et. al. in 2024 suggested that there is no evidence of any archaic hominin involvement in the early extinctions of the Pleistocene of southern China.[4]

Some authors have suggested that Gigantopihecus may have survived into the early Late Pleistocene, though the evidence for this is limited.[40]

Cryptozoology

Gigantopithecus has been used in

binomial names he came up with for bigfoot included "Gigantopithecus canadensis". Scientists and amateur monster hunters both dismissed Krantz's arguments, saying he readily accepted clearly false evidence.[41]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gigantopithecus.
Wikispecies has information related to Gigantopithecus.

References

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  2. ^ "Definition of gigantopithecus | Dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 2022-10-03. Retrieved 2022-10-02.
  3. ^ Tamisiea, Jack (10 January 2024). "The Biggest Ape That Ever Lived Was Not Too Big to Fail - Fossil teeth reveal Gigantopithecus was doomed by a changing environment and an inflexible diet". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 10 January 2024. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
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  17. ^ Cameron, D. (2001). "The taxonomic status of the Siwalik late Miocene hominid Indopithecus (= Gigantopithecus)". Himalayan Geology. 22: 29–34.
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