Giant panda
Giant panda | |
---|---|
Giant panda at the Ocean Park Hong Kong | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Carnivora |
Family: | Ursidae |
Genus: | Ailuropoda |
Species: | A. melanoleuca
|
Binomial name | |
Ailuropoda melanoleuca | |
Subspecies | |
| |
Giant panda range |
The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), also known as the panda bear or simply panda, is a
The giant panda is exclusively found in six mountainous regions in a few provinces. It is also found in elevations of up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft). Its diet consists almost entirely of
As a result of farming, deforestation, and other development, the giant panda has been driven out of the lowland areas where it once lived, and it is a conservation-reliant vulnerable species. A 2007 report showed 239 pandas living in captivity inside China and another 27 outside the country. Some reports also show that the number of giant pandas in the wild is on the rise. By March 2015, the wild giant panda population had increased to 1,864 individuals. In 2016, it was reclassified on the IUCN Red List from "endangered" to "vulnerable", affirming decade-long efforts to save the panda. In July 2021, Chinese authorities also reclassified the giant panda as vulnerable. The giant panda has often served as China's national symbol, appeared on Chinese Gold Panda coins since 1982 and as one of the five Fuwa mascots of the 2008 Summer Olympics held in Beijing.
Taxonomy
Classification
For many decades, the precise
Etymology
The word panda was borrowed into English from French, but no conclusive explanation of the origin of the French word panda has been found.[9] The closest candidate is the Nepali word ponya, possibly referring to the adapted wrist bone of the red panda, which is native to Nepal. In many older sources, the name "panda" or "common panda" refers to the red panda (Ailurus fulgens),[10] which was described some 40 years earlier and over that period was the only animal known as a panda.[11]
Since the earliest collection of Chinese writings, the Chinese language has given the bear many different names, including mò (貘, ancient Chinese name for giant panda),[12] huāxióng (花熊; "spotted bear") and zhúxióng (竹熊; "bamboo bear").[13] The most popular names in China today are dàxióngmāo (大熊貓; lit. 'giant bear cat'), or simply xióngmāo (熊貓; lit. 'bear cat'). As with the word panda in English, xióngmāo (熊貓) was originally used to describe just the red panda, but dàxióngmāo (大熊貓) and xiǎoxióngmāo (小熊猫; lit. 'little bear cat') were coined to differentiate between the species.[13]
In Taiwan, another popular name for panda is the inverted dàmāoxióng (大貓熊; lit. 'giant cat bear'), though many encyclopedias and dictionaries in Taiwan still use the "bear cat" form as the correct name. Some linguists argue, in this construction, "bear" instead of "cat" is the base noun, making the name more grammatically and logically correct, which have led to the popular choice despite official writings.[13] This name did not gain its popularity until 1988, when a private zoo in Tainan painted a sun bear black and white and created the Tainan fake panda incident.[14][15]
Subspecies
Two subspecies of giant panda have been recognized on the basis of distinct cranial measurements, colour patterns, and population genetics.[16]
- The
- The
A detailed study of the giant panda's genetic history from 2012 confirms that the separation of the Qinlin population occurred about 300,000 years ago, and reveals that the non-Qinling population further diverged into two groups, named the
Phylogeny
Of the eight extant species in the bear family Ursidae, the giant panda's lineage branched off the earliest.[21][22]
Ursidae
|
| ||||||||||||
Distribution
The giant panda is endemic to
Giant pandas once roamed across
Description
Adults measure around 1.2 to 1.9 metres (3 feet 11 inches to 6 feet 3 inches) long, including a tail of about 10–15 cm (4–6 in), and 60 to 90 cm (24 to 35 in) tall at the shoulder.[32][33] Males can weigh up to 160 kg (350 lb).[34] Females (generally 10–20% smaller than males)[35] can weigh as little as 70 kg (150 lb), but can also weigh up to 125 kg (276 lb).[36][32][37] The average weight for adults is 100 to 115 kg (220 to 254 lb).[38]
The giant panda has a body shape typical of bears. It has black fur on its ears, eye patches, limbs and shoulders. The rest of the animal's coat is white.
The giant panda's paw has a digit similar to a thumb and five fingers; the thumb-like digit – actually a modified sesamoid bone – helps it to hold bamboo while eating.[46][47][48] The giant panda's tail, measuring 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in), is the second-longest in the bear family, behind the sloth bear.[35] The giant panda typically lives around 20 years in the wild and up to 30 years in captivity.[49] A female named Jia Jia was the oldest giant panda ever in captivity; she was born in 1978 and died at an age of 38 on 16 October 2016.[50]
Ecology
Diet
Despite its
During the shoot season (April–August), pandas store a large amount of food in preparation for the months succeeding this seasonal period, in which pandas live off a diet of bamboo leaves.[55] The giant panda is a highly specialised animal with unique adaptations, and has lived in bamboo forests for millions of years.[56] The average giant panda eats as much as 9 to 14 kg (20 to 31 lb) of bamboo shoots a day to compensate for the limited energy content of its diet. Ingestion of such a large quantity of material is possible and necessary because of the rapid passage of large amounts of indigestible plant material through the short, straight digestive tract.[57][58] It is also noted, however, that such rapid passage of digesta limits the potential of microbial digestion in the gastrointestinal tract,[57] limiting alternative forms of digestion. Given this voluminous diet, the giant panda defecates up to 40 times a day.[59] The limited energy input imposed on it by its diet has affected the panda's behavior. The giant panda tends to limit its social interactions and avoids steeply sloping terrain to limit its energy expenditures.[60]
Two of the panda's most distinctive features, its large size and round face, are adaptations to its bamboo diet. Anthropologist Russell Ciochon observed: "[much] like the vegetarian gorilla, the low body surface area to body volume [of the giant panda] is indicative of a lower metabolic rate. This lower metabolic rate and a more sedentary lifestyle allows the giant panda to subsist on nutrient poor resources such as bamboo."[60] The giant panda's round face is the result of powerful jaw muscles, which attach from the top of the head to the jaw.[60] Large molars crush and grind fibrous plant material.[61]
The morphological characteristics of extinct relatives of the giant panda suggest that while the ancient giant panda was omnivorous 7 million years ago (mya), it only became herbivorous some 2–2.4 mya with the emergence of
Pandas eat any of 25 bamboo species in the wild, with the most common including Fargesia dracocephala[64] and Fargesia rufa.[65] Only a few bamboo species are widespread at the high altitudes pandas now inhabit. Bamboo leaves contain the highest protein levels; stems have less.[66] Because of the synchronous flowering, death, and regeneration of all bamboo within a species, the giant panda must have at least two different species available in its range to avoid starvation. While primarily herbivorous, the giant panda still retains decidedly ursine teeth and will eat meat, fish, and eggs when available. In captivity, zoos typically maintain the giant panda's bamboo diet, though some will provide specially formulated biscuits or other dietary supplements.[67]
Pandas will travel between different habitats if they need to, so they can get the nutrients that they need and to balance their diet for reproduction.[68]
Interspecific interactions
Although adult giant pandas have few natural predators other than humans, young cubs are vulnerable to attacks by snow leopards, yellow-throated martens,[69] eagles, feral dogs, and the Asian black bear. Sub-adults weighing up to 50 kg (110 lb) may be vulnerable to predation by leopards.[70]
Giant pandas are
Pathogens and parasites
A captive female died from
Behavior
The giant panda is a
Pandas communicate through vocalisation and scent marking such as clawing trees or
Vocalizations
The species communicates foremost through a blatting sound. Giant pandas achieve peaceful interactions through the emission of this sound. When in oestrus, a female emits a chirp. In hostile confrontations or during fights, the giant panda emits vocalizations such as a roar or growl. On the other hand, squels typically indicate inferiority and submission in a dispute. Other vocalizations include honks and moans.[85]
Olfactory communication
Giant pandas heavily rely on
The season plays a major role in mediating chemical communication.
Chemical cues, or odors, play an important role in how a panda chooses their habitat. Pandas look for odors that tell them not only the identity of another panda, but if they should avoid them or not.[91] Pandas tend to avoid their species for most of the year, breeding season being the brief time of major interaction.[91] Chemical signaling allows for avoidance and competition.[88][89] Pandas whose habitats are in similar locations will collectively leave scent marks in a unique location which is termed "scent stations".[91] When pandas come across these scent stations, they are able to identify a specific panda and the scope of their habitat. This allows pandas to be able to pursue a potential mate or avoid a potential competitor.[91]
Pandas can assess an individual's dominance status, including their age and size, via odor cues and may choose to avoid a scent mark if the signaler's competitive ability outweighs their own.[88] A pandas' size can be conveyed through the height of the scent mark.[88][92] Since larger animals can place higher scent marks, an elevated scent mark advertises a higher competitive ability. Age must also be taken into consideration when assessing a competitor's fighting ability. For example, a mature panda will be larger than a younger, immature panda and possess an advantage during a fight.[88]
Reproduction
Giant pandas reach sexual maturity between the ages of four and eight, and may be reproductive until age 20.
When the cub is first born, it is pink, blind, and toothless,[39] weighing only 90 to 130 g (3+1⁄4 to 4+1⁄2 oz), or about 1/800 of the mother's weight,[3] proportionally the smallest baby of any placental mammal.[98] It nurses from its mother's breast six to 14 times a day for up to 30 minutes at a time. For three to four hours, the mother may leave the den to feed, which leaves the cub defenseless. One to two weeks after birth, the cub's skin turns grey where its hair will eventually become black. Slight pink colour may appear on the cub's fur, as a result of a chemical reaction between the fur and its mother's saliva. A month after birth, the colour pattern of the cub's fur is fully developed. Its fur is very soft and coarsens with age. The cub begins to crawl at 75 to 80 days;[3] mothers play with their cubs by rolling and wrestling with them. The cubs can eat small quantities of bamboo after six months, though mother's milk remains the primary food source for most of the first year. Giant panda cubs weigh 45 kg (100 pounds) at one year and live with their mothers until they are 18 months to two years old. The interval between births in the wild is generally two years.[99]
Initially, the primary method of breeding giant pandas in captivity was by artificial insemination, as they seemed to lose their interest in mating once they were captured.[100] This led some scientists to trying methods such as showing them videos of giant pandas mating[101] and giving the males sildenafil (commonly known as Viagra).[102] In the 2000s, researchers started having success with captive breeding programs, and they have now determined giant pandas have comparable breeding to some populations of the American black bear, a thriving bear species.[103][75]
In July 2009, Chinese scientists confirmed the birth of the first cub to be successfully conceived through artificial insemination using frozen sperm.[104] The technique for freezing the sperm in liquid nitrogen was first developed in 1980 and the first birth was hailed as a solution to the dwindling availability of giant panda semen, which had led to inbreeding.[105][106] Panda semen, which can be frozen for decades, could be shared between different zoos to save the species.[104][107] As of 2009, it is expected that zoos in destinations such as San Diego in the United States and Mexico City will be able to provide their own semen to inseminate more giant pandas.[106]
Attempts have also been made to reproduce giant pandas by interspecific pregnancy where cloned panda embryos were implanted into the uterus of an animal of another species. This has resulted in panda fetuses, but no live births.[108]
Human interaction
Early references
In Ancient China, people thought pandas to be rare and noble creatures – the Empress Dowager Bo was buried with a panda skull in her vault. The grandson of Emperor Taizong of Tang is said to have given Japan two pandas and a sheet of panda skin as a sign of goodwill. Unlike many other animals in Ancient China, pandas were rarely thought to have medical uses. The few known uses include the Sichuan tribal peoples' use of panda urine to melt accidentally swallowed needles, and the use of panda pelts to control menstruation as described in the Qin dynasty encyclopedia Erya.[109]
The creature named mo (貘) mentioned in some ancient books has been interpreted as giant panda.
During the reign of the Yongle Emperor (early 15th century), his relative from Kaifeng sent him a captured zouyu (騶虞), and another zouyu was sighted in Shandong. Zouyu is a legendary "righteous" animal, which, similarly to a qilin, only appears during the rule of a benevolent and sincere monarch.[113]
In captivity
Pandas have been kept in zoos as early as the
In the 1970s, gifts of giant pandas to American and Japanese zoos formed an important part of the diplomacy of the People's Republic of China (PRC), as it marked some of the first cultural exchanges between China and the West. This practice has been termed "panda diplomacy".[118] By 1984, however, pandas were no longer given as gifts. Instead, China began to offer pandas to other nations only on 10-year loans for a fee of up to US$1,000,000 per year and with the provision that any cubs born during the loan are the property of China. As a result of this change in policy, nearly all the pandas in the world are owned by China, and pandas leased to foreign zoos and all cubs are eventually returned to China.[119][120] As of 2022, Xin Xin at the Chapultepec Zoo in Mexico City, was the last living descendant of the gifted pandas.[121]
Since 1998, because of a WWF lawsuit, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service only allows US zoos to import a panda if the zoo can ensure China channels more than half of its loan fee into conservation efforts for giant pandas and their habitat.[122][123] In May 2005, China offered a breeding pair to Taiwan. The issue became embroiled in cross-Strait relations – due to both the underlying symbolism and technical issues such as whether the transfer would be considered "domestic" or "international" or whether any true conservation purpose would be served by the exchange.[124] A contest in 2006 to name the pandas was held in the mainland, resulting in the politically charged names Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan (from simplified Chinese: 团圆; traditional Chinese: 團圓; pinyin: tuanyuan; lit. 'reunion', implying reunification). China's offer was initially rejected by Chen Shui-bian, then President of Taiwan. However, when Ma Ying-jeou assumed the presidency in 2008, the offer was accepted and the pandas arrived in December of that year.[125]
Conservation
The giant panda is a
The giant panda has been a target of poaching by locals since ancient times and by foreigners since it was introduced to the West. Starting in the 1930s, foreigners were unable to poach giant pandas in China because of the
The giant panda is among the world's most adored and protected rare animals, and is one of the few in the world whose natural inhabitant status was able to gain a
In 2012, Earthwatch Institute, a global nonprofit that teams volunteers with scientists to conduct important environmental research, launched a program called "On the Trail of Giant Panda". This program, based in the Wolong National Nature Reserve, allows volunteers to work up close with pandas cared for in captivity, and help them adapt to life in the wild, so that they may breed, and live longer and healthier lives.[134] Efforts to preserve the panda bear populations in China have come at the expense of other animals in the region, including snow leopards, wolves, and dholes.[135] In order to improve living and mating conditions for the fragmented populations of pandas, nearly 70 natural reserves have been combined to form the Giant Panda National Park in 2020. With a size of 10,500 square miles, the park is roughly three times as large as Yellowstone National Park and incorporates the Wolong National Nature Reserve. Small, isolated populations run the risk of inbreeding and smaller genetic variety makes the individuals more vulnerable to various defects and genetic mutation.[136]
Population
In 2006, scientists reported that the number of pandas living in the wild may have been underestimated at about 1,000. Previous population surveys had used conventional methods to estimate the size of the wild panda population, but using a new method that analyzes
In 2020, the panda population of the new national park was already above 1,800 individuals, which is roughly 80 percent of the entire panda population in China. Establishing the new protected area in the Sichuan Province also gives various other endangered or threatened species, like the Siberian tiger, the possibility to improve their living conditions by offering them a habitat.[139] Other species who benefit from the protection of their habitat include the snow leopard, the golden snub-nosed monkey, the red panda and the complex-toothed flying squirrel.[140]
In July 2021, Chinese conservation authorities announced that giant pandas are no longer endangered in the wild following years of conservation efforts, with a population in the wild exceeding 1,800.[140][141] China has received international praise for its conservation of the species, which has also helped the country establish itself as a leader in endangered species conservation.[142]: 8
See also
- Giant pandas around the world
- List of giant pandas
- Panda tea
- Pygmy giant panda
- Wildlife of China
- List of endangered and protected species of China
References
- Notes
- ^ a b c Swaisgood, R.; Wang, D. & Wei, F. (2017) [errata version of 2016 assessment]. "Ailuropoda melanoleuca". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T712A121745669. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
- ^ David, A. (1869). "Voyage en Chine". Bulletin des Nouvelles Archives du Muséum. 5: 13. Archived from the original on 12 August 2018. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
- ^ a b c "giant panda (mammal)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
- ISBN 0-520-23867-2.
- S2CID 4352629.
- ^ PMID 18662376.
- PMID 17956639.
- ^ "Behind the News – Panda Granny". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2007. Archived from the original on 4 May 2008. Retrieved 22 July 2008.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. panda n. 1.
- ^ "Animal Info – Red Panda". Archived from the original on 1 September 2008. Retrieved 4 August 2009.
- ISBN 978-0-12-823753-3.
- ^ Harper, Donald (2013), "The Cultural History of the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in Early China", Early China 35/36: 185-224. (abstract Archived 24 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine)
- ^ a b c "Discussion about the Chinese name for giant panda (in Chinese)". Archived from the original on 24 January 2008. Retrieved 17 January 2008.
- ^ "Government Information Office will now use dàxióngmāo as the proper name (in Chinese)". 聯合報. 9 August 1990. Archived from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- ^ ""bear cat" or "cat bear" (in Chinese)". 聯合報. 29 December 1987. Archived from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- ^ a b Wan, Wu & Fang 2005.
- ISSN 0048-9697.
- ISBN 978-0-7614-7872-0.
- JSTOR 4094359.
- PMID 23242367.
- PMID 17956639.
- PMID 28422140.
- ISBN 0-7398-5529-8.
- ISSN 2351-9894.
- PMID 29423692.
- ISSN 0022-541X.
- JSTOR 24643781.
- ISSN 1999-4907.
- ISSN 1687-9708.
- PMID 30710093.
- ^ ISSN 0006-3207.
- ^ a b Giant Panda, Arkive, archived from the original on 23 December 2014
- ^ "Physical Description". Giant Panda Species Survival Plan. Archived from the original on 4 December 2011. Retrieved 26 October 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-671-42805-1. Archivedfrom the original on 4 December 2021. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
- ^ ISBN 1-55821-474-7.
- ^ a b "Global Species Programme – Giant panda". World Wildlife Fund. 14 November 2007. Archived from the original on 4 July 2008. Retrieved 22 July 2008.
- ^ John Chorn; Robert S. Hoffmann (29 December 1978). "Ailuropoda melanoleuca" (PDF). Mammalian Species (110). American Society of Mammalogists: 1–6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
- ^ "Giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca". Animal Fact Guide. 2011. Archived from the original on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 19 September 2011.
- ^ a b c d e
Dudley, Karen (1997). Giant Pandas. Untamed world (Illustrated ed.). ISBN 0-919879-87-X.
- ^ .
- PMID 34711890.
- ISSN 0036-8075.
- ISBN 0-06-055803-2.
- S2CID 23918004.
- from the original on 4 December 2021. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
- ^ Morris, Paul; Morris, Susan F. "The Panda's Thumb". Athro Limited. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
- PMID 26036823.
- PMID 35773284.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-61535-339-2.
- ^ "'Oldest' panda in captivity Jia Jia dies at the age of 38". BBC. 16 October 2016. Archived from the original on 16 October 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2016.
- ^ PMID 20010809.
- PMID 29391488.
- PMID 29898983.
- PMID 27703267.
- PMID 35045306.
- ^ a b "Giant Panda Facts". National Zoological Park. Archived from the original on 23 June 2012. Retrieved 8 June 2012.
- ^ PMID 36773257.
- PMID 20814990.
- PMID 33517011.
- ^ a b c Ciochon, R. L.; Eaves-Johnson, K. L. (2007). "Bamboozled! The Curious Natural History of the Giant Panda Family". Scitizen. Archived from the original on 21 July 2007. Retrieved 22 July 2008.
- ^ S2CID 1261505.
- ^ PMID 17578912.
- ^ PMID 21818345.
- ^ a b Li, D.-Z.; Guo, Z.; Stapleton, C. (2007). "Fargesia dracocephala". In Wu, Z. Y.; Raven, P.H.; Hong, D.Y. (eds.). Flora of China. Vol. 22. Beijing: Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press. p. 93. Archived from the original on 9 January 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2007.
- ^ Li, D.-Z.; Guo, Z.; Stapleton, C. (2007). "Fargesia rufa". In Wu, Z. Y.; Raven, P.H.; Hong, D.Y. (eds.). Flora of China. Vol. 22. Beijing: Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press. p. 81. Archived from the original on 10 November 2016. Retrieved 7 November 2007.
- ^ Dolberg, F. (1992). "Progress in the utilization of urea-ammonia treated crop residues: biological and socio-economic aspects of animal production and application of the technology on small farms". University of Arhus. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2010.
- ^ Lumpkin & Seidensticker 2007, pp. 63–64 (page numbers as per the 2002 edition)
- PMID 37537140.
- ISSN 2397-334X.
- PMID 32279465.
- ISSN 0006-3207.
- PMID 37091556.
- PMID 26514595.
- PMID 29530307
- ^ a b "Panda behavior & habitat". World Wildlife Federation China. Archived from the original on 7 June 2008. Retrieved 16 June 2008.
- ^ "Giant Panda". National Zoological Park. Archived from the original on 17 July 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
- ISSN 0022-2372.
- ^ from the original on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 8 March 2020.
- PMID 34789821.
- ^ Deborah Smith Bailey (January 2004). "Understanding the giant panda". American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 14 June 2008. Retrieved 17 June 2008.
- ^ "Teenager hospitalized after panda attack in Chinese zoo". Fox News/Associated Press. 23 October 2007. Archived from the original on 9 June 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
- ^ "Panda attacks man in Chinese zoo". BBC News. 22 November 2008. Archived from the original on 27 June 2009. Retrieved 3 September 2009.
- ^ "Giant panda in China bites third victim". CNN News. 10 January 2009. Archived from the original on 18 January 2009. Retrieved 10 January 2009.
- PMID 33288697.
- PMID 30473861.
- ^ S2CID 22335820– via SpringerLink.
- PMID 29078359.
- ^ S2CID 42122274.
- ^ .
- ^ S2CID 210133833.
- ^ S2CID 226766316.
- S2CID 53256022.
- ^ "Animal Info – Giant Panda". Archived from the original on 14 March 2009. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
- ^ "Giant Panda Reproduction" (PDF). National Zoological Park. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2008. Retrieved 13 April 2008.
- ^ a b Kleiman, Devra G. "Giant Panda Reproduction". Archived from the original on 7 August 2008. Retrieved 14 April 2008.
- ^ Ruane, Michael E.; Koh, Elizabeth; Weil, Martin (23 August 2015). "National Zoo's giant panda Mei Xiang gives birth to two cubs hours apart". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 24 August 2015. Retrieved 24 August 2015.
- ^ "Panda Facts". Pandas International. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
- ISBN 978-1-904994-87-9
- ^ "Panda Update: September Cub Exam". Discovery Communications, LLC. 4 May 2006. Archived from the original on 7 November 2010. Retrieved 9 August 2010.
- ^ "National Zoo's Giant Panda Undergoes Artificial Insemination". NBC. Associated Press. 19 March 2008. Retrieved 13 April 2008.[permanent dead link]
- Time Warner. Archivedfrom the original on 5 April 2008. Retrieved 13 April 2008.
- ^ "Pandas unexcited by Viagra". BBC News. 9 September 2002. Archived from the original on 5 October 2007. Retrieved 13 April 2008.
- National Geographic Magazine. Archivedfrom the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 10 April 2008.
- ^ a b "Baby panda born from frozen sperm". BBC. 25 July 2009. Archived from the original on 26 July 2009. Retrieved 26 July 2009.
- ^ "First panda cub born using frozen sperm". The Irish Times. 25 July 2009. Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2009.
- ^ a b Tran, Tini (24 July 2009). "China announces first panda from frozen sperm". USA TODAY. Archived from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
- ^ "World's 1st giant panda born from frozen sperm in SW China". Xinhua News Agency. 24 July 2009. Archived from the original on 26 December 2009. Retrieved 26 July 2009.
- PMID 12135908.
- ^ a b Schaller 1993, p. 61.
- Shu").
- ^ Erya, Chapter "釋獸" ("About animals") Archived 4 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine: "貘,白豹" (Mo, white leopard).
- ^ China Giant Panda Museum: Historical Records in Ancient China Archived 6 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Supposed Chinese historical terminology appears in the Chinese version of this article, 我国古代的历史记载 Archived 6 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- JSTOR 4527170.
- ^ Schaller 1993, p. 62.
- ^ "Giant Panda: Overview". World Wildlife Fund. Archived from the original on 9 August 2012. Retrieved 26 October 2011.
- ^ a b Goodman, Brenda (12 February 2006). "Eats Shoots, Leaves and Much of Zoos' Budgets". The New York Times. Atlanta. Archived from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 9 August 2010.
- ^ "Zoo negotiates lower price to rent bears from China". SignOnSanDiego.com. 13 December 2008. Archived from the original on 16 February 2009. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
- from the original on 11 April 2020. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
- ^ "In memory of panda queen nicknamed "Granny Basi," five amazing things you may not know about pandas". Newsweek. 16 September 2017. Archived from the original on 3 June 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
- ^ Fikes, Bradely (25 March 2019). "Last pandas at San Diego Zoo are leaving". San Diego Union-Tribune. Archived from the original on 4 June 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
- ^ "The last panda in Latin America? Mexico to decide what happens next". NBC News. 18 November 2022. Archived from the original on 24 February 2024. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
- ^ 63 FR 45839
- ^ "History of Panda Conservation". World Wildlife Fund. 2020. Archived from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
- ^ China's Panda Politics. Newsweek. 15 October 2007. Retrieved 23 May 2008. Archived 10 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ China sends panda peace offering Archived 27 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian. 28 December 2008.
- PMID 19864275.
- ^ "Giant panda". CITES. 14 August 1983. Retrieved 27 April 2024.
- JSTOR 3872681.
- ^ "About Wolong". Wolong National Natural Reserve. 7 May 2005. Archived from the original on 1 December 2006.
- ^ "Pandas gain world heritage status". BBC. 12 July 2006. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2020.
- ^ Benn, Joanna (13 July 2006). "Panda sanctuary in China added to World Heritage list". WWF. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2020.
- ^ "Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries – Wolong, Mt Siguniang and Jiajin Mountains". Unesco WHC. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2020.
- S2CID 34750531.
- ^ "Earthwatch: On the Trail of Giant Panda". Archived from the original on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
- ^ Jessie Yeung (4 August 2020). "China's focus on panda conservation has come at the cost of other species: study". CNN. Archived from the original on 13 August 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
- ^ "China's National Panda Park Will Be Three Times the Size of Yellowstone". Archived from the original on 19 April 2021. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
- ^ Briggs, Helen (20 June 2006). "Hope for future of giant panda". BBC News. Archived from the original on 27 January 2007. Retrieved 14 February 2007.
- ^ The Panda is still endangered species, and the conservation efforts still need to be reinforced Archived 13 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine State Forestry Administration of the People's Republic of China (in Chinese)
- ^ "China forges ahead with ambitious national park plan". National Geographic Society. 27 August 2020. Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
- ^ TheGuardian.com. 9 July 2021. Archivedfrom the original on 11 July 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2021.
- ^ "Conservation efforts have saved China's giant pandas from the endangered species list". CBS News. 10 July 2021. Archived from the original on 11 July 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2021.
- JSTOR j.ctv19rs1b2.
- Bibliography
- AFP (via Discovery Channel) (20 June 2006). Panda Numbers Exceed Expectations.
- Associated Press (via CNN) (2006). Article link.
- Catton, Chris (1990). Pandas. Christopher Helm.
- Friends of the National Zoo (2006). Panda Cam: A Nation Watches Tai Shan the Panda Cub Grow. New York: Fireside Books.
- Goodman, Brenda (12 February 2006). Pandas Eat Up Much of Zoos' Budgets. The New York Times.
- Lumpkin, Susan; Seidensticker, John (2007). Giant Pandas. London: Collins. ISBN 1-58834-013-9.)
- Panda Facts At a Glance (N.d.). www.wwfchina.org. WWF China.
- Ryder, Joanne (2001). Little panda: The World Welcomes Hua Mei at the San Diego Zoo. New York: Simon & Schuster.
- Schaller, George B. (1993). The Last Panda. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-73628-8. (There are also several later reprints)
- Wan, Qiu-Hong; Wu, Hua; Fang, Sheng-Guo (2005). "A New Subspecies of Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) from Shaanxi, China". Journal of Mammalogy. 86 (2): 397–402. JSTOR 4094359.
- Warren, Lynne (July 2006). "Panda, Inc." National Geographic. (About Mei Xiang, Tai Shan and the Wolong Panda Research Facility in Chengdu China).
- Journal of Mammalogy, Volume 96, Issue 6, 24 November 2015, Pages 1116–1127, https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyv118
External links
- BBC Nature: Giant panda news, and video clips from BBC programmes past and present.
- Panda Pioneer: the release of the first captive-bred panda 'Xiang Xiang' in 2006
- WWF – environmental conservation organization
- Pandas International – panda conservation group
- National Zoo Live Panda Cams – Baby Panda Tai Shan and mother Mei Xiang
- Information from Animal Diversity
- NPR News 2007/08/20 – Panda Romance Stems From Bamboo
- View the panda genome on Ensembl.
- Texts and pictures of the Panda exhibition at the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin Archived 14 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- iPanda-50: annotated image dataset for fine-grained panda identification on Github