HMAS Australia (1911)
HMAS Australia
| |
History | |
---|---|
Australia | |
Name | Australia |
Namesake | Commonwealth of Australia |
Ordered | 9 December 1909 |
Builder | John Brown & Company, Clydebank |
Yard number | 402 |
Laid down | 26 June 1910 |
Launched | 25 October 1911 |
Commissioned | 21 June 1913 |
Decommissioned | 12 December 1921 |
Identification | Pennant numbers: C6 / 09 / 81[1] |
Motto | "Endeavour" |
Honours and awards |
|
Fate | Scuttled, 12 April 1924 |
General characteristics | |
Class and type | Indefatigable-class battlecruiser |
Displacement |
|
Length | 590 ft (179.8 m) |
Beam | 80 ft (24.4 m) |
Draught | 30 ft 4 in (9.2 m) at maximum |
Installed power |
|
Propulsion | 4 shafts; 2 steam turbine sets |
Speed | 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph) |
Range | 6,690 nautical miles (12,390 km; 7,700 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) |
Complement | 818 (1913) |
Armament |
|
Armour |
HMAS Australia was one of three Indefatigable-class battlecruisers built for the defence of the British Empire. Ordered by the Australian government in 1909, she was launched in 1911, and commissioned as flagship of the fledgling Royal Australian Navy (RAN) in 1913. Australia was the only capital ship ever to serve in the RAN.[A]
At the start of
On her return to Australian waters, several sailors aboard the warship
Design
The Indefatigable class of battlecruisers were based heavily on the preceding Invincible class. The main difference was that the Indefatigable's design was enlarged to give the ships' two-wing turrets a wider arc of fire. As a result, the Indefatigable class was not a significant improvement on the Invincible design; the ships were smaller and not as well protected as the contemporary German battlecruiser SMS Von der Tann and subsequent German designs. While Von der Tann's characteristics were not known when the lead ship of the class, HMS Indefatigable, was laid down in February 1909, the Royal Navy obtained accurate information on the German ship before work began on Australia and her sister ship HMS New Zealand.[4]
Australia had an
The ship was powered by two
Australia carried eight
The Indefatigables were protected by a
Australia's 'A' turret was fitted with a 9-foot (2.7 m)
Modifications
Australia received a single QF 3-inch (76 mm) 20 cwt anti-aircraft (AA) gun on a high-angle Mark II mount that was added in March 1915.[15] This had a maximum depression of 10° and a maximum elevation of 90°. It fired a 12.5-pound (5.7 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2,500 ft/s (760 m/s) at a rate of fire of 12–14 rounds per minute. It had a maximum effective ceiling of 23,500 ft (7,200 m).[16] It was provided with 500 rounds. The 4-inch guns were enclosed in casemates and given blast shields during a refit in November 1915 to better protect the gun crews from weather and enemy action, and two aft guns were removed at the same time.[15] An additional 4-inch gun was fitted during 1917 as an AA gun. It was mounted on a Mark II high-angle mounting with a maximum elevation of 60°. It had a reduced propellant charge with a muzzle velocity of only 2,864 ft/s (873 m/s);[17] 100 rounds were carried for it.[15]
Australia received a fire-control director sometime between mid-1915 and May 1916; this centralised fire control under the director officer, who now fired the guns. The turret crewmen merely had to follow pointers transmitted from the director to align their guns on the target. This greatly increased accuracy, as it was easier to spot the fall of shells and eliminated the problem of the ship's roll dispersing the shells when each turret fired independently.[18] Australia was also fitted with an additional inch of armour around the midships turrets following the Battle of Jutland.[19]
By 1918, Australia carried a Sopwith Pup and a Sopwith 1½ Strutter on platforms fitted to the top of 'P' and 'Q' turrets. The first flying off by a 1½ Strutter was from Australia's 'Q' turret on 4 April 1918.[12] Each platform had a canvas hangar to protect the aircraft during inclement weather.[20] At the end of World War I, Australia was described as "the least obsolescent of her class".[21]
After the war, both anti-aircraft guns were replaced by a pair of
Acquisition and construction
At the start of the 20th century, the
On 9 December 1909, a cable was sent by
The Australian Government decided on the name Australia, as this would avoid claims of favouritism or association with a particular state.
Bids for construction were forwarded to the Australian Government by Reid on 7 March 1910, and Prime Minister Alfred Deakin approved the submission by John Brown & Company to construct the hull and machinery, with separate contracts awarded to Armstrong and Vickers for the battlecruiser's armament.[32] The total cost of construction was set at £2 million.[32] Contracts were signed between the Admiralty and the builders to avoid the problems of distant supervision by the Australian Government, and a close watch on proceedings was maintained by Reid and Captain Francis Haworth-Booth, the Australian Naval Representative in London.[32]
Australia's keel was laid at John Brown & Company's Clydebank yard on 23 June 1910, and was assigned the yard number 402.[10][33] The ship was launched by Lady Reid on 25 October 1911, in a ceremony which received extensive media coverage.[30] Australia's design was altered during construction to incorporate improvements in technology, including the newly developed nickel-steel armour plate.[34][35] While it was intended that the entire ship be fitted with the new armour, manufacturing problems meant that older armour had to be used in some sections: the delay in sourcing the older armour plates set construction back half a year.[34] Despite this, John Brown & Company delivered the ship £295,000 under budget.[34]
During construction, First Lord of the Admiralty
Australia sailed for
At launch, the standard ship's company was 820, over half of which were Royal Navy personnel; the other half was made up of Australian-born RAN personnel, or Britons transferring from the Royal Navy to the RAN.[38] Accommodation areas were crowded, with each man having only 14 inches (36 cm) of space to sling his hammock when Australia was fully manned.[39] Moreover, the ventilation system was designed for conditions in Europe, and was inadequate for the climate in and around Australia.[39] On delivery, Australia was the largest warship in the Southern Hemisphere.[40]
Operational history
Voyage to Australia
Following her commissioning, Australia hosted several official events. On 30 June,
Australia was escorted by the light cruiser HMAS Sydney during the voyage to Australia.[38] On 25 July, the two ships left England for South Africa: the visit was part of an agreement between the Prime Ministers of Australia and South Africa to promote the link between the two nations, along with the nations' links to the rest of the British Empire.[38][45] The two ships were anchored in Table Bay from 18 to 26 August, during which the ships' companies participated in parades and receptions, while tens of thousands of people came to observe the ships.[46] The two ships also visited Simon's Town, while Australia additionally called into Durban.[38][47] No other major ports were visited on the voyage, and the warships were instructed to avoid all major Australian ports.[38]
Australia and Sydney reached Jervis Bay on 2 October, where they rendezvoused with the rest of the RAN fleet (the cruisers Encounter and Melbourne, and the destroyers Parramatta, Warrego, and Yarra).[38] The seven warships prepared for a formal fleet entry into Sydney Harbour.[38] On 4 October, Australia led the fleet into Sydney Harbour, where responsibility for Australian naval defence was passed from the Royal Navy's Australia Squadron, commanded by King-Hall aboard HMS Cambrian, to the RAN, commanded by Patey aboard Australia.[40]
Early service
In her first year of service, Australia visited as many major Australian ports as possible, to expose the new navy to the widest possible audience and induce feelings of nationhood: naval historian David Stevens claims that these visits did more to break down state rivalries and promote the unity of Australia as a federated commonwealth than any other event.[48] During late 1913, footage for the film Sea Dogs of Australia was filmed aboard the battlecruiser; the film was withdrawn almost immediately after first screening in August 1914 because of security concerns.[49]
During July 1914, Australia and other units of the RAN fleet were on a training cruise in Queensland waters.[50] On 27 July, the Australian Commonwealth Naval Board learnt through press telegrams that the British Admiralty thought that there would be imminent and widespread war in Europe following the July Crisis, and had begun to position its fleets as a precaution.[50][51] Three days later, the Board learnt that the official warning telegram had been sent: at 22:30, Australia was recalled to Sydney to take on coal and stores.[50][52]
On 3 August, the RAN was placed under Admiralty control.
World War I
Securing local waters
The British Empire declared war on Germany on 5 August, and the RAN swung into action.[54] Australia had departed Sydney the night before, and was heading north to rendezvous with other RAN vessels south of German New Guinea.[57] The German colonial capital of Rabaul was considered a likely base of operations for von Spee, and Patey put together a plan to clear the harbour.[54] Australia's role was to hang back: if the armoured cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and SMS Gneisenau were present, the other RAN vessels would lure them into range of the battlecruiser.[54] The night-time operation was executed on 11 August, and no German ships were found in the harbour.[54] Over the next two days, Australia and the other ships unsuccessfully searched the nearby bays and coastline for the German ships and any wireless stations, before returning to Port Moresby to refuel.[58]
In late August, Australia and
The
Pursuit of von Spee
The presence of Australia around the former German colonies, combined with the likelihood of Japan declaring war on Germany, prompted von Spee to withdraw his ships from the region.[70] On 13 August, the East Asia Squadron—except for SMS Emden, which was sent to prey on British shipping in the Indian Ocean—had begun to move eastwards.[70] After appearing off Samoa on 14 September, then attacking Tahiti eight days later, von Spee led his force to South America, and from there planned to sail for the Atlantic.[71] Patey was ordered on 17 September to head back north with Australia and Sydney to protect the Australian expeditionary force.[72] On 1 October, Australia, Sydney, Montcalm, and Encounter headed north from Rabaul to find the German ships, but turned around to return at midnight, after receiving an Admiralty message about the Tahiti attack.[73] Although Patey suspected that the Germans were heading for South America and wanted to follow with Australia, the Admiralty was unsure that the intelligence was accurate, and tasked the battlecruiser with patrolling around Fiji in case they returned.[71][73] Australia reached Suva on 12 October, and spent the next four weeks patrolling the waters around Fiji, Samoa, and New Caledonia: despite Patey's desires to range out further, Admiralty orders kept him chained to Suva until early November.[74]
As Patey predicted, von Spee had continued east, and it was not until his force inflicted the first defeat on the Royal Navy in 100 years at the
North Sea operations
As the threat of a German naval attack had been removed by the destruction of the East Asia Squadron, Australia was free for deployment elsewhere.[59][78] Initially, the battlecruiser was to serve as flagship of the West Indies Squadron, with the task of pursuing and destroying any German vessels that evaded North Sea blockades.[79] Australia was ordered to sail to Jamaica via the Panama Canal, but as it was closed to heavy shipping, she was forced to sail down the coast of South America and pass through the Strait of Magellan during 31 December 1914 and 1 January 1915—Australia is the only ship of the RAN to cross from the Pacific to the Atlantic by sailing under South America.[80][81] During the crossing, one of the warship's propellers was damaged, and she had to limp to the Falkland Islands at half speed.[82] Temporary repairs were made, and Australia departed on 5 January.[82] A vessel well clear of the usual shipping routes was spotted on the afternoon of the next day, and the battlecruiser attempted to pursue, but was hampered by the damaged propeller.[77][82] Unable to close the gap before sunset, a warning shot was fired from 'A' turret, which caused the ship—the former German passenger liner, now naval auxiliary Eleonora Woermann—to stop and be captured.[77][82] As Australia could not spare enough personnel to secure and operate the merchant ship, and Eleonora Woermann was too slow to keep pace with the battlecruiser, the German crew were taken aboard and the ship was sunk.[77][82]
Following the
Soon after its arrival in the United Kingdom there were 259 cases of respiratory illness as the crew were not used to the colder weather. A subsequent measles epidemic in June 1915 forced the Admiralty to conclude that the ship's doctors lacked expertise in ship hygiene, which forced them to appoint a senior fleet surgeon to assist in improving conditions on the ship.[88]
Australia joined the Grand Fleet in a sortie on 29 March, in response to intelligence that the German fleet was leaving port as the precursor to a major operation.
Collison with HMS New Zealand
On the morning of 21 April 1916, the 2nd BCS left Rosyth at 04:00 (accompanied by the 4th Light Cruiser Squadron and destroyers) again bound for the Skagerrak, this time to support efforts to disrupt the transport of Swedish ore to Germany.[94][95]
The planned destroyer sweep of the Kattegat was cancelled when word came that the High Seas Fleet was mobilizing for an operation of their own (later learned to be timed to coincide with the Irish Easter Rising), and the British ships were ordered to a rendezvous point in the middle of the North Sea, with the 1st and 3rd Battlecruiser Squadrons while the rest of the Grand Fleet made for the south-eastern end of the Long Forties.[96]
At 15:30 on the afternoon of 22 April, the three squadrons of battlecruisers were patrolling together to the north-west of
Australia slowed to half-speed as the mist hid her sister ship, but the damage to New Zealand's propeller caused a temporary loss of control and she swung back in front of Australia which despite turning to port, had her stem crushed at 15:46 as she scraped the side of New Zealand, just behind her P-turret.[98][77][97] Procedural errors were found to be the cause of the collisions.[83][101] Both ships to come to a complete stop about 30–40 yd (27–37 m) apart while their respective officers assessed the damage. The damage control teams on the Australia were soon busy shoring up bulkheads and sealing off the damaged portions to prevent any more water entering the ship. Meanwhile off watch Australian sailors took advantage of a convenient potato locker to hurl both its contents and insults at the crew of their nearby sister ship.[98] New Zealand was soon underway, returning to Rosyth with the rest of the squadron.
The same fog caused the battleship Neptune to collide with a merchant ship and the destroyers Ambuscade, Ardent and Garland to collide with one another.
Once it was safe to proceed Australia with her speed restricted to 12, and then later to 16 knots lagging behind the rest of the squadron, arrived back at Rosyth at 16:00 hours on the 23 April to find both drydocks occupied, one by New Zealand and the other by HMS Dreadnought so she departed at 21:00 hours on that same day for Newcastle-on-Tyne, where as she approached its floating dock
Australia was not able to depart Newcastle-on-Tyne until 13:30 on 1 May, and unknowingly streamed through a minefield to anchor in the Humber near the Nore Lightship. They departed on 3 May, and while anchoring overnight in Deal the crew witnessed an air raid on Deal Pier prior to the battlecruiser docking in Devonport at 13:00 on 6 May.[95] While docked the ship was visited by Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes, accompanied by the Australian High Commissioner to Britain Andrew Fisher and Senator Allan McDougall.[102] Following completion of repairs the battlecruiser departed Devonport at 11:00 on 31 May, sailing west about round Ireland[102] to arrive at Scapa Flow at 06:30 on 3 June[95][103] and returned to Rosyth on 9 June, thus missing the Battle of Jutland.[97][83]
Post-Jutland operations
On the evening of 18 August, the Grand Fleet put to sea in response to a message deciphered by
The year 1917 saw a continuation of the battlecruiser's routine of exercises and patrols into the North Sea, with few incidents. During this year Australia's activities were limited to training voyages between Rosyth and
In February 1918, the call went out for volunteers to participate in a special mission to close the port of Zeebrugge using blockships.[111] Although many aboard Australia volunteered their services in an attempt to escape the drudgery of North Sea patrols, only 11 personnel—10 sailors and an artificer engineer were selected for the raid, which occurred on 23 April.[111][112] The artificer engineer was posted to the engine room of the requisitioned ferry HMS Iris II.[113] The other Australians were assigned to the boiler rooms of the blockship Thetis, or as part of a storming party along the mole.[113][114] All of the volunteers survived—Australia was the only ship to have no casualties from the raid with one awarded the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC), three the Distinguished Service Medal (DSM), while another three were mentioned in dispatches.[113][115][E] The five sailors were listed in the ballot to receive a Victoria Cross, but did not receive the award.[118]
During 1918, Australia and the Grand Fleet's other capital ships on occasion escorted convoys travelling between Britain and Norway.[107] The 2nd BCS spent the period from 8 to 21 February covering these convoys in company with battleships and destroyers, and put to sea on 6 March in company with the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron to support minelayers.[120] From 8 March on, the battlecruiser tested the capabilities of aircraft launched from platforms mounted over 'P' and 'Q' turrets.[110] Australia, along with the rest of the Grand Fleet, sortied on the afternoon of 23 March 1918 after radio transmissions had revealed that the High Seas Fleet was at sea after a failed attempt to intercept the regular British convoy to Norway. However, the Germans were too far ahead of the British and escaped without firing a shot.[121] The 2nd BCS sailed again on 25 April to support minelayers, then cover one of the Scandinavian convoys the next day.[120] Following the successful launch of a fully laden Sopwith 1½ Strutter scout plane on 14 May, Australia started carrying two aircraft—a Strutter for reconnaissance, and a Sopwith Camel fighter—and operated them until the end of the war.[59][110] The 2nd BCS again supported minelayers in the North Sea between 25–26 June and 29–30 July.[120] During September and October, Australia and the 2nd BCS supervised and protected minelaying operations north of Orkney.[114]
War's end
When the
After being formally farewelled by the Prince of Wales and First Sea Lord Rosslyn Wemyss on 22 April 1919, Australia departed from Portsmouth for home the next day.[124] She sailed in company with HMAS Brisbane for the first part of the voyage, but the light cruiser later had to detach to tow the submarine J5.[124] Australia arrived in Fremantle on 28 May 1919, the first time the ship had seen home waters in four and a half years.[125] Despite returning home, the battlecruiser remained under Admiralty control until 1 August 1919.[126]
Australia was not awarded any official
Mutiny
Australia's ship's company had consistently suffered from low morale since the battlecruiser entered service, and the proportion of Australia's sailors who were placed on disciplinary charges during World War I was among the highest in the RAN.[130] Many of the Australian sailors were chafing under the severity of naval discipline and what they saw as excessive punishment for minor breaches; one example was of a sailor who was charged with desertion, imprisoned for three months, and lost all pay for staying out too late on Armistice Day. Factors which contributed to low morale and poor discipline included frustration at not participating in the Battle of Jutland, high rates of illness, limited opportunities for leave, delays or complete lack of deferred pay, and poor-quality food. The continuation of strict wartime routines and discipline after the armistice frustrated the ship's crew. There was also the perception that Australia's British personnel were being promoted faster than their Australian counterparts and were dominating leadership positions.[131] The battlecruiser's arrival in Fremantle on 28 May was met with extensive hospitality, which was reciprocated where possible by the sailors with invitations and tours of their vessel.[132] There were opportunities for shore leave, but these were limited as Australia was only in port for three days, and had to sail early on 1 June for Melbourne.[132][133]
Representatives of the ship's company approached Captain
Australian naval historians David Stevens and
Following the court-martial of the five ringleaders, there was debate among the public, in the media, and within government over the sentences; while most agreed that a mutiny had occurred, there were differences in opinion on the leniency or severity of the punishments imposed.
Post-war
In May 1920, Australia participated in celebrations and naval activities associated with the visit of the Prince of Wales.[149] From July to November 1920, an Avro 504 floatplane of the Australian Air Corps was embarked aboard Australia as part of a series of trials intended to cumulate in the creation of a naval aviation branch.[150][151] The aircraft was stored on the quarterdeck next to 'Q' turret, and was deployed and recovered by derrick.[10] Inter-service rivalry and the ship's reduction to non-seagoing status in September prevented further operations.[151]
Following the demise of German naval power in the Pacific the fleet unit concept was no longer seen as being relevant, and Australia did not have a clear role.
Decommissioning and fate
Australia returned to Sydney in November 1921, and was paid off into reserve in December.[149][153] By this time battlecruisers built before the Battle of Jutland were considered obsolete, and there is no record of the Admiralty suggesting that Australia purchase a replacement. Moreover, it is unlikely that the Australian Government would have agreed to such a suggestion given the prevailing political and financial conditions. As the Admiralty had decided to phase out 12-inch guns and had stopped the manufacture of shells for these weapons shortly after the war, it would have been necessary to replace Australia's main armament once the Navy's stock of shells reached their expiry date given that it was not possible to produce replacement shells in Australia. This was also not financially feasible for the government, particularly given the RAN's lack of interest in retaining the ship.[154]
The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty was a mutual naval arms limitation and disarmament treaty between the five major naval powers of the time: the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Japan, Italy, and France.[2] One of the main aspects of the treaty was the limitation on the number and size of capital ships each nation possessed; as the RAN was counted as part of the Royal Navy for the purposes of the treaty, Australia was one of the battlecruisers nominated for disposal to meet the British limit.[2] The battlecruiser had to be made unusable for warlike activities within six months of the treaty's ratification, then disposed of by scuttling, as Australia did not have the facilities to break her up for scrap, and the British share of target ships was taken up by Royal Navy vessels.[155] This was the only time the Australian military has been affected by a disarmament treaty[156] until the 1997 Ottawa Treaty banning the use of anti-personnel mines.[157]
When Australia was decommissioned in 1921, some of her equipment was removed for use in other ships, but after the November 1923
The scuttling was originally scheduled for
There are two schools of thought surrounding the decision to scuttle the battlecruiser. The first is that sinking Australia was a major blow to the nation's ability to defend herself. Following the battlecruiser's scuttling, the most powerful warships in the RAN were four old light cruisers.[2] The battlecruiser had served as a deterrent to German naval action against Australia during the war, and with growing tensions between Japan and the United States of America, that deterrence might have been required if the nations had become openly hostile towards each other or towards Australia.[168] The opposing argument is that, while an emotive and symbolic loss, the ship was obsolete, and would have been a drain on resources.[2][153] Operating and maintaining the warship was beyond the capabilities of the RAN's post-war budgets, necessitating the ship's reduction in status in 1920 and assignment to reserve in 1921.[169] Ammunition and replacement barrels for the main guns were no longer manufactured.[153][168] To remain effective, Australia required major modernisation (including new propulsion machinery, increased armour and armament, and new fire control systems) at a cost equivalent to a new County-class cruiser.[2]
In 1990, a large, unknown shipwreck was encountered by the Fugro Seafloor Surveys vessel MV Moana Wave 1 while surveying the path of the
Artifacts
The outer port side propeller of Australia can be found on the grounds of the Australian War Memorial, between the main building and Anzac Hall. This is believed to be the spare from HMS Indefatigable that was fitted to Australia after her collision with HMS New Zealand in 1916.[176]
Prior to her scuttling the ship's bell was transferred to the Australian War Memorial. By 1927 the bell was being rung at the memorial mark the commencement and conclusion of the traditional two minutes of silence on Remembrance Day. It is still on display at the Australian War Memorial, but is no longer rung.[177]
A 12 inch armour piercing shell from Australia is held by the Australian War Memorial.[178]
Footnotes
- ^ The Royal Australian Navy claims that Australia was the only capital ship to serve in the RAN.[2] However, some sources also define the light aircraft carriers Sydney, Vengeance, and Melbourne as capital ships, and one (Cassells' The Capital Ships) also includes heavy and light cruisers, a destroyer tender, and a seaplane carrier in this definition.[3]
- ^ Wherever possible the Royal Navy's preference was to use Welsh coal. Coal from Westport in New Zealand was considered to be the other that provided close to the same performance and so was widely used in the Pacific, Asia and the Indian Ocean. It was found that when using Westport coal Australia needed only 23 boilers in service to cruise at 16 knots. When using Australian coal it needed all of its 31 boilers in service to maintain 15 knots, leading to a shorter range and more frequent coaling stops.[8] Another downside of using Australian coal was that it burned at such a high temperature that damaged the interior of the boilers.[9]
- ^ Only 25 per cent of the crew were Australian born on the first voyage to Australia. More were to join when the ship arrived in Australia.[44]
- ^ While no sources explicitly state that Australia was part of the fleet at this time, of the seven Royal Navy battlecruisers then in commission, Indomitable was under refit through August and the only one unavailable for action.[104]
- ^ The 11 Australians who took part in the Zeebrugge and the medals they were awarded were Artificer Engineer William Edgar [DSC), Leading Stokers William Bourke, Reginald Hopkins, Godfrey Lockard, Norbert McCrory, James Strong; Leading Seaman Dalmorton Rudd DSM, George Bush DSM and Able Seamans Henry Gillard, Leopold Thomas Newland and George Edward Staples DSM.[116] Gillard, Newland and McCrory were mentioned in dispatches. A twelfth man, Stoker John Walter Carter, was selected for the raid but was unable to participate due to illness.[117] Edgar was assigned command of the engine room in HMS Iris II, while the five seamen were assigned to HMS Vindictive, and the five stokers to HMS Thetis.[118] Bush, Gillard, Newland, Rudd and Staples unsuccessfully participated in a ballot by their peers for the award of a Victoria Cross (VC) to a Royal Navy rating.[118][119]
- ^ The five charged mutineers were Dalmorton Rudd DSM, his younger 18 year old brother Leonard "Lenny" Thomas Rudd, Willian McIntosh, Ken Paterson and Wilfred "Pitta" Thompson.[139]
Citations
- ^ a b c Cassells, The Capital Ships, pp. 16–17
- ^ a b c d e f Kerr, A Loss More Symbolic Than Material?, in Semaphore, p. 1
- ^ Cassells, The Capital Ships, pp. ix, 3, 211
- ^ Roberts, Battlecruisers, pp. 28–29
- ^ Roberts, Battlecruisers, pp. 43–44
- ^ a b c Burt, British Battleships of World War One, p. 91
- ^ Roberts, Battlecruisers, pp. 76, 80
- ^ Halder, Mutineers, p. 25
- ^ "New Zealand in the Naval War 1914-1918". navymuseum.co.nz. Torpedo Bay Museum. November 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
- ^ a b c d Bastock, Australia's Ships of War, p. 34
- ^ Roberts, Battlecruisers, pp. 81–84
- ^ a b Campbell, Battle Cruisers, p. 14
- ^ Roberts, Battlecruisers, p. 112
- ^ Roberts, Battlecruisers, pp. 90–91
- ^ a b c Campbell, Battle Cruisers, p. 13
- ^ British 12-pdr (3"/45 (76.2 cm)) 20cwt QF HA Marks I, II, III and IV, Navweapons.com
- ^ Roberts, Battlecruisers, pp. 92–93
- ^ a b Jones, A Fall From Favour, p. 57
- ^ Roberts, Battlecruisers, p. 92
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 284
- ^ Britain 4"/45 (10.2 cm) QF Mark V and Mark XV, Navweapons.com
- ^ Frame, No Pleasure Cruise, p. 71
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens & Reeve, The Navy and the Nation, pp. 168–169
- ^ a b c Lambert, in Nielson & Kennedy, Far Flung Lines, p. 64
- ^ Lambert, in Nielson & Kennedy, Far Flung Lines, pp. 64–65
- ^ Roberts, Battlecruisers, p. 29
- ^ a b Frame, No Pleasure Cruise, p. 92
- ^ Roberts, Battlecruisers, pp. 29–31
- ^ a b c Stevens, in Stevens & Reeve, The Navy and the Nation, p. 172
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens & Reeve, The Navy and the Nation, pp. 171–172
- ^ a b c Stevens, in Stevens & Reeve, The Navy and the Nation, p. 171
- ^ HMAS Australia built by John Brown Clydebank, Clydebuilt Ships Database
- ^ a b c d e f Stevens, in Stevens & Reeve, The Navy and the Nation, p. 173
- ^ Roberts, Battlecruisers, p. 102
- ^ a b c Dennis et al., The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History, p. 299
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 24
- ^ a b c d e f g h Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 25
- ^ a b Frame and Baker, Mutiny!, p. 68
- ^ a b Frame, No Pleasure Cruise, p. 97
- ^ Rüger, Nation, Empire and Navy, p. 179
- ^ a b c Rüger, Nation, Empire and Navy, p. 180
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens & Reeve, The Navy and the Nation p. 174
- ^ Halder, Mutineers, p. 12
- ^ Rüger, Nation, Empire and Navy, pp. 180–182
- ^ Rüger, Nation, Empire and Navy, p. 181
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens & Reeve, The Navy and the Nation, p. 175
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens & Reeve, The Navy and the Nation, p. 179
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, pp. 32–33
- ^ a b c Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 30
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 2–3
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 3
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, pgs. 30, 32
- ^ a b c d e Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 32
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 33
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 24–25
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 9–10
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 13–14
- ^ a b c d e f Bastock, Australia's Ships of War, p. 35
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 51
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 50–55
- ^ a b Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 59
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 60
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 60–61
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 78
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 81
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 544
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 90
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 93–94
- ^ a b Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 29
- ^ a b c Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 36
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 100
- ^ a b Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 103–104
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 121–124
- ^ a b Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 125
- ^ a b c Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 126
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 37
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 127
- ^ a b Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 262
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 127–128
- ^ Bastock, Australia's Ships of War, pgs. 35, 38
- ^ a b c d e f g Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 128
- ^ a b c d e Roberts, Battlecruisers, p. 123
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 263–264
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 264–267
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 264
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens, The Navy and the Nation, pp. 167–168
- ^ Halder, Mutineers, p. 24
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 269
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 269–270
- ^ a b Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 270
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 270–271
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 271
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 272
- ^ a b c d e f g Ross, Battle Cruisers in Collision
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 272–273
- ^ a b c d e Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 274
- ^ a b c d Pelvin, The Battlecruiser Australia (1911), p. 23
- ^ Jose, pp. 272–274
- ^ Wright, ‘‘The Battlecruiser New Zealand: A Gift to Empire’’, p. 153-154
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 38
- ^ a b c Halder, Mutineers, p. 39-42
- ^ Naval Historical Society of Australia, Australian Naval History on 31 May 1916
- ^ Roberts, Battlecruisers, p. 122
- ^ Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. III, pp. 287–296
- ^ a b Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, pp. 279, 281
- ^ a b Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 279
- ^ Burt, British Battleships of World War One, p. 104
- ^ Halder, Mutineers, pp. 47–48
- ^ a b c ANAM, Flying Stations, p. 8
- ^ a b Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 51
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 281
- ^ a b c d e Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 52
- ^ a b Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 282
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 593
- ^ Halder, Mutineers, pp. 49–54
- ^ Swinden, Greg; Perryman, John. "Australian Sailors at Zeebrugge". navy.gov.au. Royal Australian Navy. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
- ^ a b c "Chapter Sixteen: Able Seaman Dalmorton Joseph Owendale Rudd". The Report of the Inquiry Into Unresolved Recognition for Past Acts of Naval and Military Gallantry and Valour (PDF) (Report). Canberra: Defence Honours and Awards Appeals Tribunal. 2013. pp. 186–197. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
- ^ "Leading Seaman Dalmorton Joseph Owendale Rudd". navy.gov.au. Royal Australian Navy. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
- ^ a b c Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 303
- ^ Massie, Castles of Steel, p. 748
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 53
- ^ a b Frame and Baker, Mutiny!, p. 99
- ^ a b Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 334
- ^ a b c d e f Sears, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 56
- ^ Sears, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 57
- ^ Cassells, The Capital Ships, pp. 18, 26
- ^ Royal Australian Navy, Navy Marks 109th Birthday With Historic Changes To Battle Honours
- ^ Royal Australian Navy, Royal Australian Navy Ship/Unit Battle Honours
- ^ Frame and Baker, Mutiny!, p. 97
- ^ Frame & Baker, Mutiny!, p. 98–99
- ^ a b c d Stevens, in Bell & Ellerman, Naval Mutinies of the Twentieth Century, p. 131
- ^ a b c Frame and Baker, Mutiny!, p. 100
- ^ Frame and Baker, Mutiny!, p. 101
- ^ a b c d e Frame and Baker, Mutiny!, p. 102
- ^ Stevens, in Bell & Ellerman, Naval Mutinies of the Twentieth Century, pp. 131–132
- ^ Stevens, in Bell & Ellerman, Naval Mutinies of the Twentieth Century, p. 132
- ^ a b Frame, No Pleasure Cruise, p. 130
- ^ Halder, Mutineers, pp. 12, 13, 125
- ^ a b c d Stevens, in Bell & Ellerman, Naval Mutinies of the Twentieth Century, p. 133
- ^ a b c Frame and Baker, Mutiny!, p. 103
- ^ Frame and Baker, Mutiny!, pp. 103–105
- ^ Frame and Baker, Mutiny!, p. 105
- ^ a b Frame and Baker, Mutiny!, p. 106
- ^ a b Frame and Baker, Mutiny!, p. 107
- ^ Frame, No Pleasure Cruise, pp. 131–132
- ^ Sears, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, pp. 56–57
- ^ Frame, No Pleasure Cruise, p. 132
- ^ a b c Stevens, in Stevens & Reeve, The Navy and the Nation, p. 180
- ^ Dennis et al., The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History, p. 53
- ^ a b ANAM, Flying Stations, p. 14
- ^ a b c Jones, A Fall From Favour, p. 58
- ^ a b c d e f g h Sears, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 65
- ^ Jones, A Fall From Favour, pp. 58–60
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens & Reeve, The Navy and the Nation, pp. 180–182
- ^ Dennis et al., The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History, p. 186
- ^ States Parties, International Campaign to Ban Landmines
- ^ a b Stevens, in Stevens & Reeve, The Navy and the Nation, p. 182
- ^ a b c Jones, A Fall From Favour, p. 59
- ^ Duncan, Battlecruiser HMAS Australia (1), pp. 39–40
- ^ Duncan, Battlecruiser HMAS Australia (1), p. 40
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens & Reeve, The Navy and the Nation, pp. 182–183
- ^ a b c d Bastock, Australia's Ships of War, p. 38
- ^ a b Cassells, The Capital Ships, p. 17
- ^ Sears, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, p. 66
- ^ a b c d Stevens, in Stevens & Reeve, The Navy and the Nation, p. 166
- ^ a b Duncan, Battlecruiser HMAS Australia (1), p. 41
- ^ a b Kerr, A Loss More Symbolic Than Material?, in Semaphore, pp. 1–2
- ^ A Loss More Symbolic Than Material?, in Semaphore, p. 2
- ^ a b c Duncan, Battlecruiser HMAS Australia (1), p. 45
- ^ a b c d Duncan, Battlecruiser HMAS Australia (1), p. 47
- ^ a b Cubby, First Navy Flagship Found off Sydney
- ^ Duncan, Battlecruiser HMAS Australia (1), p. 63
- ^ a b Duncan, Battlecruiser HMAS Australia (1), pp. 73–74
- ^ Duncan, Battlecruiser HMAS Australia (1), p. 75
- ^ Griffiths, Australia and its screw
- ^ Spennemann & Parker, After They Fell Silent: The Nature and Fate of the Ship Bells Associated with the Vessels Scrapped for the Washington Arms Limitation Treaty of 1922
- ^ Australian War Memorial, 12 inch armour piercing shell: HMAS Australia (I)
References
Books
- Australian Naval Aviation Museum (ANAM) (1998). Flying Stations: A Story of Australian Naval Aviation. St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin. OCLC 39290180.
- Bastock, John (1975). Australia's Ships of War. Cremorne, NSW: Angus and Robertson. OCLC 2525523.
- Burt, R. A. (1986). British Battleships of World War One. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. OCLC 14224148.
- Campbell, N. J. M. (1978). Battle Cruisers: The Design and Development of British and German Battlecruisers of the First World War Era. Warship Special. Vol. 1. Greenwich: Conway Maritime Press. OCLC 5991550.
- Cassells, Vic (2000). The Capital Ships: Their Battles and Their Badges. East Roseville, NSW: Simon & Schuster. OCLC 48761594.
- Dennis, Peter; Grey, Jeffrey; Morris, Ewan & Prior, Robin (2008) [1995]. The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, VIC: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-551784-2.
- Frame, Tom & Baker, Kevin (2000). Mutiny! Naval Insurrections in Australia and New Zealand. St. Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-86508-351-8.
- OCLC 55980812.
- Halder, Robert (2021). Mutineers: A true story of heroes and villains (Paperback). Melbourne: Wilkinson Publishers. ISBN 9781925-927573.
- Jose, Arthur W. (1941) [1928]. The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918. The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918. Vol. IX (9th ed.). Sydney, NSW: Angus and Robertson. OCLC 215763279.
- Lambert, Nicholas (1997). "Economy or Empire?: The Fleet Unit Concept and the Quest for Collective Security in the Pacific, 1909–14". In Neilson, Keith; Kennedy, Greg (eds.). Far Flung Lines: Studies in Imperial Defence in Honour of Donald Mackenzie Schurman. London: Frank Cass. OCLC 36122963.
- Marder, Arthur J. (1978). From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, The Royal Navy in the Fisher Era, 1904–1919. Vol. III: Jutland and After, May 1916 – December 1916 (Second ed.). London: Oxford University Press. OCLC 3516460.
- ISBN 0-679-45671-6.
- Pelvin, Richard (2018). "The Battlecruiser Australia (1911)". In Taylor, Bruce (ed.). The World of the Battleship: The Lives and Careers of Twenty-One Capital Ships of the World's Navies, 1880–1990. Barnsley: Seaforth Publishing. ISBN 978-0870219061.
- Roberts, John (1997). Battlecruisers. London: Chatham Publishing. OCLC 38581302.
- Sears, Jason (2001). "An Imperial Service". In Stevens, David (ed.). The Royal Australian Navy. The Australian Centenary History of Defence. Vol. III. South Melbourne, VIC: Oxford University Press. OCLC 50418095.
- Stevens, David (2001). "The Genesis of the Australian Navy". In Stevens, David (ed.). The Royal Australian Navy. The Australian Centenary History of Defence. Vol. III. South Melbourne, VIC: Oxford University Press. OCLC 50418095.
- Stevens, David (2001). "World War I". In Stevens, David (ed.). The Royal Australian Navy. The Australian Centenary History of Defence. Vol. III. South Melbourne, VIC: Oxford University Press. OCLC 50418095.
- Stevens, David (2003). "The HMAS Australia Mutiny 1919". In Bell, Christopher M.; Elleman, Bruce A. (eds.). Naval Mutinies of the Twentieth Century: An International Perspective. Naval policy and history. Vol. 19. Southgate, London: Frank Cass Publishers. pp. 123–144. ISBN 0-7146-5460-4.
- Stevens, David (2005). "HMAS Australia: A Ship for a Nation". In Stevens, David & Reeve, John (eds.). The Navy and the Nation: The Influence of the Navy on Modern Australia. St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-74114-200-8.
- Wright, Matthew J. (2021). The Battlecruiser New Zealand: A Gift to Empire. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. OCLC 1206393324.
Journal and news articles
- Cubby, Ben (13 April 2007). "First Navy Flagship Found off Sydney". The Sydney Morning Herald.
- Jones, Ray (1993). "A Fall From Favour: HMAS Australia, 1913 to 1924". Journal of the Australian Naval Institute. 19 (3). Campbell, ACT: Australian Naval Institute. ISSN 0312-5807.
- Kerr, Glenn (May 2004). "A Loss More Symbolic Than Material?". Semaphore. 2004 (5). Sea Power Centre Australia. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
- "Navy Marks 109th Birthday With Historic Changes To Battle Honours". Royal Australian Navy. 1 March 2010. Archived from the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
- Ross, Trevor Wilson (31 December 1975). "Battle Cruisers in Collision". Naval Historical Review (December 1975). Liverpool, NSW, Australia: Naval Historical Society of Australia.
- Rüger, Jan (November 2004). "Nation, Empire and Navy: Identity Politics in the United Kingdom". Past & Present (185). Oxford University Press: 159–188. .
- Spennemann, Dirk H. R.; Parker, Murray (2021). "After They Fell Silent: The Nature and Fate of the Ship Bells Associated with the Vessels Scrapped for the Washington Arms Limitation Treaty of 1922". Heritage. 4 (1). MPDI: 32–75. .
Online sources
- "12 inch armour piercing shell: HMAS Australia (I)". Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
- "Australian Naval History on 31 May 1916". Naval Historical Society of Australia. 31 May 1916. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
- Duncan, Brad (July 2011). Battlecruiser HMAS Australia (1): Wreck Inspection Report (PDF) (Report). Parramatta, NSW: Heritage Branch, NSW Office of Environment and Heritage. OCLC 754127975. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
- Griffiths, John (7 December 2018). "Australia and its Screw". Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
- "States Parties". International Campaign to Ban Landmines. Retrieved 12 April 2010.
- "Britain 4"/45 (10.2 cm) QF Mark V and Mark XV". Navweaps.com. 25 January 2010. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
- "British 4"/50 (10.2 cm) BL Mark VII". Navweaps.com. 14 October 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2009.
- "British 12-pdr (3"/45 (76.2 cm)) 20cwt QF HA Marks I, II, III and IV". Navweaps.com. 27 February 2007. Retrieved 11 November 2009.
- "HMAS Australia Built by John Brown Clydebank". Clydebuilt Ships Database. Archived from the original on 20 September 2004. Retrieved 3 April 2010.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - "Royal Australian Navy Ship/Unit Battle Honours" (PDF). Royal Australian Navy. 1 March 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2011. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
Further reading
- Johnston, Ian (2011). Clydebank Battlecruisers: Forgotten Photographs from John Brown's Shipyard (Hardcover). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1591141204.
- Meaney, Neville Kingsley (2009). The Search for Security in the Pacific 1901-1914: A History of Australian Defence and Foreign Policy 1901-23. Vol. 1. Sydney: Sydney University Press. ISBN 9781920899189.
- Overlack, Peter (1996). "German Commerce Warfare Planning for the Australian Station, 1900-1914". War & Society. 14 (1). Abingdon-on-Thames, England: Routledge: 17–48. .
- Tracy, Nicholas, ed. (2020). The Collective Naval Defence of Empire, 1900–1940. Abingdon-on-Thames, England: Routledge. ISBN 9781000341621.
External links
- Thus Britain Honours Her Word – A Pathé Newsreelfrom 1924 containing footage of Australia sinking.
- HMAS Australia (I) – The Royal Australian Navy webpage for Australia.