History of St. Louis
History of St. Louis |
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Exploration and Louisiana |
City founding and early history |
Expansion and the Civil War |
St. Louis as the Fourth City |
Urban decline and renewal |
Recent developments |
See also |
The history of
With its connection through the Ohio River to the east, the Mississippi to the south and north, and the Missouri to the west, St. Louis was ideally located to become the main base of interregional trade. In the 1840s, it became a destination for massive immigration by Irish and Germans. Some native-born Americans reacted with fear to the newcomers, adopting
After the war, the city expanded its railroad connections and industrial activity. It suffered a corresponding rise in pollution of the river and waterfront. During the early 1870s, the Eads Bridge was constructed over the Mississippi River, and the city established several large parks, including Forest Park. Due to local political and economic disputes, the city separated from St. Louis County in 1876 and became an independent city. Its limited geographic area has inhibited its success in the 20th and 21st centuries because of the small tax base. During the late 19th century, St. Louis became home to two Major League Baseball teams. Ragtime and blues music flourished in the city, with African Americans making major contributions also in jazz.
The city hosted the
After the war, federal highway subsidies and postwar development encouraged outward migration as residents moved to gain newer housing; this
Exploration and Louisiana before 1762
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg/250px-Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg.png)
The earliest settlements in the middle
Extensive European exploration near the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers began nearly a century before the city was officially founded.
Nine years later, French explorer
City founding and early history: 1763–1803
![Drawing of the St. Louis street grid from the 1780s showing the river and a small village](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Stlouis1780.jpeg/220px-Stlouis1780.jpeg)
The arrival in New Orleans of
French settlers began to arrive from settlements on the east bank of the Mississippi in 1764, given the transfer of eastern land to
The occupation of most settlers was farming, and by the 1790s nearly 6,000 acres (24 km2) were under cultivation around St. Louis.
The French settlers brought both black and Indian
American Revolutionary War
Upon the beginning of the American Revolutionary War, Spanish governor, Bernardo de Galvez, in New Orleans assisted the American rebels with weapons, food, blankets, tents and ammunition.[27] The Spanish lieutenant governors at St. Louis also aided the Americans, particularly the forces of George Rogers Clark during the Illinois campaign.[27] After the official entry of Spain into the American Revolutionary War in June 1779 on the side of the Americans and the French, the British began preparing an expedition to capture St. Louis and other Mississippi outposts.[28] However, the city was warned of the plans, and residents began to fortify the town.[29]
![Painting of the Battle of St. Louis of 1780 showing attacking Native Americans and the defending town](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/St-louis-attack.jpg/220px-St-louis-attack.jpg)
On May 26, 1780, a British commander leading a force consisting mostly of Indian allies
After the conclusion of the Revolutionary War at the
Transfer to France and the United States
During the 1790s, towns near St. Louis expanded as small farmers sold their lands to the Cerres, Gratiots, Soulards, or Chouteaus. These farmers moved to towns such as
The Spanish government secretly returned the unprofitable Louisiana territory to France in October 1800 in the Treaty of San Ildefonso.[36][37] The Spanish officially transferred control in October 1802; however, Spanish administrators remained in charge of St. Louis throughout the time of French ownership.[36] Shortly afterward, a team of American negotiators purchased Louisiana, including St. Louis.[38] On March 8 or 9, 1804, the flag of Spain was lowered at the government buildings in St. Louis and, according to local tradition, the flag of France was raised. On March 10, 1804, the French flag was replaced by that of the United States.[38]
Expansion, growth, and the Civil War: 1804–1865
Government and religion
Initially, the governor of the
The population of the city expanded slowly after the Louisiana Purchase, but expansion increased desire to incorporate St. Louis as a town, allowing it to create local ordinances without the approval of the territorial legislature.
After the end of the
After the transfer of Louisiana to the United States, the Spanish had ended subsidies to the Catholic Church in St. Louis.
During the 1830s and 1840s, other faith groups also came to St. Louis, including the first
Commerce, the Panic of 1819, and growth
![Drawing of the levee along the Mississippi in 1857 showing steamboats and commercial buildings](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/The_Levee_or_Landing%2C_St._Louis%2C_Missouri.jpg/220px-The_Levee_or_Landing%2C_St._Louis%2C_Missouri.jpg)
Commerce after the Louisiana Purchase remained focused on the fur trade; operations in St. Louis were led by the Chouteau family and its alliance with the Osages and by Manuel Lisa and his Missouri Fur Company.[57] Due to its role as a major trading post, the city was the departure point for the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1804.[58]
American and other immigrant families began arriving in St. Louis and opening new businesses, including printing and banking, starting in the 1810s. Among the printers was Joseph Charless, who published the first newspaper west of the Mississippi, the Missouri Gazette, on July 12, 1808.[59] In 1816 and 1817, groups of merchants formed the first banks in the town, but mismanagement and the Panic of 1819 led to their closure.[60]
The effect of the Panic of 1819 and subsequent depression slowed commercial activity in St. Louis until the mid-1820s.[50] By 1824 and 1825, however, St. Louis businesses began to recover, largely due to the introduction of the steamboat; the first to arrive in St. Louis, the Zebulon M. Pike, docked on August 2, 1817.[61][62] Rapids north of the city made St. Louis the northernmost navigable port for many large riverboats, and the Pike and other ships soon transformed St. Louis into a bustling inland port.[63]
More goods became available in St. Louis during the economic recovery, largely as a result of the new steamboat power.
Construction of the
Infrastructure and education improvements
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/St._Louis_Levee._1850.jpg/220px-St._Louis_Levee._1850.jpg)
In large part due to the rapid population growth,
Most early St. Louisans remained illiterate through the 1810s, although many wealthy merchants purchased books for private libraries.
Entertainment options increased during the pre–Civil War period; in early 1819, the first theatre production in St. Louis opened, including a musical accompaniment.[92] In the late 1830s, a 35-member orchestra briefly played in St. Louis, and in 1860, another orchestra opened that played more than 60 concerts through 1870.[92]
Slavery, immigration and nativism
![Painting of Dred Scott](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Oil_on_Canvas_Portrait_of_Dred_Scott_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Oil_on_Canvas_Portrait_of_Dred_Scott_%28cropped%29.jpg)
Missouri was admitted as a
Some slaves were allowed to earn wages, and some were able to save money to purchase their freedom or that of relatives.
During the economic expansion of the 1830s, Irish and German immigration to St. Louis increased substantially.
American Civil War
Before the war, the core of St. Louis leadership had shifted from the Creole and Irish families to a new group, dominated by anti-slavery Germans.
Throughout the entirety of the Civil War, and despite having seen no battles, St. Louis was under pressure as it was considered a city on the borderline. Though many people were confident in abolition, many were concerned about the economic effect of losing their free work force. In addition, St. Louis was still a developing city, and so a war could lead to utter destruction and ruin. However, with all the necessity of ammunition, St. Louis survived and transformed into a leader among cities.[112]
After the Camp Jackson Affair, there were no more military threats to Union control until 1864, although
Fourth city status: 1866–1904
During the decades after the Civil War, St. Louis grew to become the nation's fourth largest city, after New York City, Philadelphia, and Chicago.[116] It also experienced rapid infrastructure and transportation development and the growth of heavy industry. The period culminated with the 1904 World's Fair and 1904 Summer Olympics, which were held concurrently in St. Louis.
Infrastructure, parks, and education
![Photograph of the Eads Bridge under construction in 1874 showing its girders and piers](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Eads_Bridge_construction.jpg/220px-Eads_Bridge_construction.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/4th_Fa._Chesnut_N._1872.jpg/220px-4th_Fa._Chesnut_N._1872.jpg)
During the Civil War, the infrastructure of St. Louis suffered from neglect; another cholera epidemic struck in 1866, and
Railroads
Railroad yards were built in
To accommodate increased rail traffic, a new railroad terminal was constructed in 1875, but it was not large enough to consolidate all train service in one location.
Education
By 1870 the public and parochial education systems expanded, to 24,347 and 4,362 students respectively. St. Louis educators established the first public kindergarten in the United States, under the instruction of Susan Blow in 1874.[130] Proposals for a free library system originated prior to the Civil War, and after the conflict the St. Louis Public School Library was established. During the 1870s and 1880s, a variety of local fee-based libraries consolidated with the school library system, and in 1894, the school system divested the library system as an independent entity, which became the St. Louis Public Library.[131]
Racially segregated schools had operated secretly and illegally in St. Louis since the 1820s, but in 1864, an integrated group of St. Louisans formed the Board of Education for Colored Schools, which established schools without public finances for more than 1,500 black pupils in 1865. After 1865, the St. Louis Board of Education appropriated funding for the black schools, but facilities and conditions were quite poor. In 1875, after considerable effort and protest from the black community, high school classes began to be offered at Sumner High School, the first high school for black students west of the Mississippi. However, inequality remained rampant in St. Louis schools.[132]
Radical historians in the 1960s, steeped in the anti-bureaucratic ethos of the New Left, deplored the emergence of bureaucratic school systems. They argue its purpose was to suppress the upward aspirations of the working class.[133] However, other historians have emphasized the necessity of building non-politicized standardized systems. The reforms in St. Louis, according to historian Selwyn Troen, were. "born of necessity as educators first confronted the problems of managing a rapidly expanding and increasingly complex institutions." Troen found that the bureaucratic solution remove schools from the bitterness and spite of ward politics. Troen argues:
- In the space of only a generation, public education had left behind a highly regimented and politicized system dedicated to training children in the basic skills of literacy and the special discipline required of urban citizens, and had replaced it with a largely apolitical, more highly organized and efficient structure specifically designed to teach students the many specialized skills demanded in a modern, industrial society. In terms of programs this entailed the introduction of vocational instruction, a doubling of the period of schooling, and a broader concern for the welfare of urban youth.[134]
Separation from St. Louis County
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/St_Louis_Map_1885.jpg/220px-St_Louis_Map_1885.jpg)
When Missouri became a state in 1821, St. Louis County was created from the boundaries of the former St. Louis subdistrict of the Missouri Territory; St. Louis city existed within the county but was not coterminous with it. Starting in the 1850s, rural county voters began to exert political influence over questions of taxation in the St. Louis County court.
At a Missouri state constitutional convention in 1875, delegates from the region agreed on a separation plan.
Industrial and commercial growth
In 1880, the leading industries of St. Louis included
The introduction of the railroad in St. Louis helped spread the fortune and initialize much of this industrial success. With the completion of the Municipal Railroad System, St. Louis' manufacturers could get their products to consumers on the East Coast much faster than before.[143]
![Photograph of an early refrigerated railroad car with Anheuser-Busch beer advertisements](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Reefers-shorty-Anheuser-Busch-Malt-Nutrine_ACF_builders_photo_pre-1911.jpg/220px-Reefers-shorty-Anheuser-Busch-Malt-Nutrine_ACF_builders_photo_pre-1911.jpg)
The brewing small industry took off with the arrival of
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/12th_St._From_Washington_Ave._South%2C_92%27.png/220px-12th_St._From_Washington_Ave._South%2C_92%27.png)
St. Louis became home to whiskey distilleries. Several were at the heart of the Whiskey Ring during the early 1870s, a conspiracy that began among St. Louis distillers and federal tax officials to avoid paying excise taxes. With the breakup of the ring in May 1875, more than 100 conspirators were charged with fraud, including Grant's private secretary, Orville E. Babcock. In early 1876, 110 conspirators were convicted of fraud. Babcock was the only defendant who was acquitted.[146]
In 1877, a general strike occurred within the city by workers for the eight-hour day & banning of child labor.[147][148]
The
Among the downsides to rapid industrialization was pollution.
In addition to industrial growth, the 1880s and 1890s were a period of significant growth in downtown commercial building. The retail district was centered at Fourth Street and Washington Avenue, while banking and business was centered to the south, at Fourth and Olive streets. During the 1890s, significant retailers and businesses moved westward; among the new buildings constructed as a result of this movement was the Wainwright Building. Designed by Louis Sullivan in 1891, the Wainwright was the tallest building in the city at the time of its construction and remains an example of early skyscraper design.[56]
Culture
![Photograph of ragtime composer Scott Joplin](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Scott_Joplin_19072.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Roof_Garden_U.T._Blg-_1894.jpg/220px-Roof_Garden_U.T._Blg-_1894.jpg)
In September 1880, the St. Louis Choral Society opened as a musical orchestra and choir; the same organization provided annual concerts through 1906, when it was renamed the
The sport of baseball began to be played in the years following the Civil War; a team known as the St. Louis Brown Stockings was founded in 1875.[156] The Brown Stockings were a founding member of the National League and became a hometown favorite, defeating the Chicago White Stockings (later the Chicago Cubs) in their opener on May 6, 1875.[157] The original Brown Stockings club closed in 1878, and an unrelated National League team with the same name was founded in 1882.[156] This team repeatedly changed its name, shortening to the Browns in 1883, becoming the Perfectos in 1899, and settling on the St. Louis Cardinals in 1900.[156] In 1902, a team moved to St. Louis from Milwaukee and adopted the name St. Louis Browns, although they had no relation to the previous Browns or Brown Stockings.[158] From 1902 until the 1950s, St. Louis was home to two Major League teams.[158]
Notable residents in the field of literature included poets Sara Teasdale and T. S. Eliot, as well as playwright Tennessee Williams.
1904 World's Fair
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Louisiana_Purchase_Exposition_East_Lagoon.jpg/220px-Louisiana_Purchase_Exposition_East_Lagoon.jpg)
Beginning in the 1850s, St. Louis hosted annual agricultural and mechanical fairs at
Company directors selected the western half of Forest Park as the fair site, sparking a real estate and construction boom.
Decline of the inner city and urban renewal: 1905–1980
Civic improvements and segregation policies
During the early 1900s and 1910s, St. Louis began a building program that created parks and playgrounds in several deteriorating residential neighborhoods.
During the 1904 World's Fair,
Although St. Louis enforced a variety of
Despite segregationist and racist attitudes, St. Louis acted as a haven during the 1917
World War I and the interbellum period
1930 | 1931 | 1933 | |
---|---|---|---|
National average | 8.7% | 15.9% | 24.9% |
St. Louis (total) | 9.8% | 24% | 35% |
St. Louis (whites) | 8.4% | 21.5% | 30% |
St. Louis (blacks) | 13.2% | 42.8% | 80% |
Both the St. Louis German and Irish communities urged
In response to the 1918 influenza pandemic, in October 1918 the Health Commissioner, Dr. Max C. Starkloff closed all public venues and prohibited public gatherings of more than 20 people. His actions are credited as being an early instance in modern medicine of social distancing and resulting in St. Louis having half the per capita death rate in comparison to other cities that took no measures.[182][183][184]
After World War I, the nationwide prohibition of alcohol in 1919 brought heavy losses to the St. Louis brewing industry. Other industries, such as light manufacturing of clothing, automobile manufacturing, and chemical production, filled much of the gap, and St. Louis's economy was relatively diversified and healthy during the 1920s.[185]
St. Louis suffered as much or more than comparable cities in the early years of the Great Depression. Manufacturing output fell by 57 percent between 1929 and 1933, slightly more than the national average of 55 percent, and output remained low until World War II.[186] Unemployment during the Depression was high in most urban areas, and St. Louis was no exception (see table). Black workers in St. Louis, as in many cities, suffered significantly higher unemployment than their white counterparts.[179] To aid the unemployed, the city allocated funds starting in 1930 toward relief operations.[187] In addition to city relief aid, New Deal programs such as the Public Works Administration employed thousands of St. Louisans. Civic improvement construction jobs also reduced the number of persons on direct relief aid by the late 1930s.[188]
World War II
![Photograph of Edward O'Hare](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Butch_OHare_F6F-3.jpg/220px-Butch_OHare_F6F-3.jpg)
During World War II, St. Louis was the location of a large ammunition factory and the
At the outbreak of war, African-American workers gained greater acceptance in industry than previously, but discrimination remained a problem for many black workers.[190][197] During the war, city officials passed the first municipal integration ordinance, allowing African Americans to eat at city-owned (but not private) lunch counters.[198] In May 1944, when a black sailor in uniform was refused service at a privately owned lunch counter, the action prompted peaceful sit-in protests at several downtown diners.[198] No changes in Jim Crow segregation policies at lunch counters resulted, but Saint Louis University admitted its first black students starting in August 1944.[199]
More than 5,400 St. Louisans became casualties of the war, listed as either
Sub-urbanization and population loss
Internal population migration westward was a feature of St. Louis since its earliest days, but it accelerated rapidly in the late 19th century.
The city reached its highest recorded census population in 1950, reaching 856,796, and its population peaked in the early 1950s with approximately 880,000 residents.[205][206] However, new highway construction and increased automobile ownership enabled further suburbanization and population began a long decline.[207] Another factor in the city's population loss was white flight, which began in earnest during the late 1950s and continued during the 1960s and 1970s.[207] From 1950 to 1960, the city population declined by 13 percent to 750,026, and from 1960 to 1970, the city declined another 17 percent to 622,236.[205] Of this decline, the white population declined primarily due to "massive outward migration, primarily to the suburbs."[206] Between 1960 and 1970, a net 34 percent of white city residents moved out; in addition, city white death rates exceeded birth rates.[206] By the early 1970s, the white population of the city had decreased significantly, particularly among those of child-bearing age.[208] The black population of St. Louis saw a natural increase of 19.5 percent during the 1960s, with no gain or loss through migration; during that decade, the overall percentage of black city residents rose from 29 to 41 percent.[206][208] However, the black population declined in size from 1968 to 1972 by nearly 20,000 residents, representing significant black out-migration from the city during the period. Many moved to suburban developments in St. Louis County.[206]
Urban renewal projects and the Arch
![Aerial photograph of the St. Louis riverfront](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/St._Louis_riverfront_after_demolition_for_Gateway_Arch_%281942%29.jpg/220px-St._Louis_riverfront_after_demolition_for_Gateway_Arch_%281942%29.jpg)
Early
Concurrent with plans during the 1930s to build Gateway Arch National Park, then known as the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial, were plans to create subsidized housing in the city.[213] Despite efforts at civic improvement starting in the 1920s and two significant housing projects built in 1939, after World War II more than 33,000 houses had shared or outdoor toilets, while thousands of St. Louisans lived in crowded, unsafe conditions.[214] Starting in 1953, St. Louis cleared the Chestnut Valley area in Midtown, selling the land to developers who constructed middle-class apartment buildings.[215] Nearby, the city cleared more than 450 acres (1.8 km2) of a residential neighborhood known as Mill Creek Valley, displacing thousands.[216] A residential mixed-income development known as LaClede Town was created in the area in the early 1960s, although this was eventually demolished for an expansion of Saint Louis University.[217] The majority of people displaced from Mill Creek Valley were poor and African American, and they typically moved to historically stable, middle-class black neighborhoods such as The Ville.[216]
In 1953, St. Louis issued bonds that financed the completion of the St. Louis Gateway Mall project and several new high-rise housing projects.[215] The most famous and largest was Pruitt–Igoe, which opened in 1954 on the northwest edge of downtown and included 33 eleven-story buildings with nearly 3,000 units. Between 1953 and 1957, St. Louis built more than 6,100 units of public housing, and each opened with enthusiasm on the part of local leaders, the media, and new tenants.[218] From the beginning problems plagued the projects; it became quickly apparent that there was too little recreational space, too few healthcare facilities or shopping centers, and employment opportunities were scarce. Crime was rampant, particularly at Pruitt–Igoe, and that complex was demolished in 1975.[219] The other St. Louis housing projects remained relatively well-occupied through the 1980s, in spite of lingering problems with crime.[220]
Along with the housing projects, a 1955 urban renewal bond issue totaled more than $110 million. The bonds provided funds to purchase land to build three
Government consolidation attempts
Due to the city's population decline, beginning in the 1920s and accelerating through the 1950s, local government leaders made several attempts to consolidate services.
Recent developments: 1981–present
Beautification and crime prevention projects
By the late 1970s, urban decay had spread, as described by Kenneth T. Jackson, historian of suburban development:
[St. Louis is] a premier example of urban abandonment. Once the fourth largest city in America, the "Gateway to the West" is now twenty-seventh, a ghost of its former self. In 1940 it contained 816,000 inhabitants: in 1980 the census counted only 453,000. Many of its old neighborhoods have become dispiriting collections of burned-out buildings, eviscerated homes, and vacant lots.... The air is polluted, the sidewalks are filthy, the juvenile crime is horrendous, and the remaining industries are languishing. Grimy warehouses and aging loft factories are landscaped by weed-grown lots adjoining half-used rail yards. Like an elderly couple no longer sure of their purpose in life after their children have moved away, these neighborhoods face an undirected future.
— Kenneth T. Jackson[230]
As of the election of
School desegregation and voluntary transfers
Although
In the 1970s, a
Under a renewed agreement in 1999, all but one of the St. Louis County districts agreed to continue their participation, albeit with an opt-out clause that allowed districts to reduce the number of incoming transfer students starting in 2002.[240] In addition, districts have been permitted to reduce available seats in the program. Since 1999, districts have reduced availability by five percent annually.[241] A five-year extension of the voluntary transfer program was approved in 2007,[242] and another five-year extension was approved in 2012, allowing new enrollments to take place through the 2018–2019 school year in participating districts.[241] Critics of the transfer program note that most of the desegregation under the plan is via transfer of black students to the county rather than transfer of white students to the city.[242][243] Another criticism has been that the program weakens city schools by removing talented students to county schools.[244] Despite these issues, the program will continue until all transfer students reach graduation; with the last group of transfer students allowed to enroll in 2018–2019, the program will end after the 2030–2031 school year.[242][245]
New construction, gentrification, and rehabilitation
From 1981 to 1993, new construction projects were initiated in downtown St. Louis at levels unseen since the early 1960s.
![Photograph of the Washington Avenue Historic District](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/St._Louis_MO_Ralph_Moran.jpg/220px-St._Louis_MO_Ralph_Moran.jpg)
The city sponsored a major expansion of the
Although the arena opened in 1994 (and the original arena was demolished in 1999), renovations on the opera house did not begin until 2007. This was more than 15 years after the initial development plan.
In January 1995, Georgia Frontiere, the owner of the National Football League team known as the Los Angeles Rams (now St. Louis Rams), announced she would move that team to St. Louis.[252] The team replaced the St. Louis Cardinals (now Arizona Cardinals), an NFL franchise that had moved to St. Louis in 1960 but departed for Arizona in 1988.[252] The Rams played their first game in their St. Louis stadium, The Dome at America's Center, on October 22, 1996.[253]
Starting in the early 1980s, more rehabilitation and construction projects began, some of which remain incomplete. In 1981, the
Other downtown projects include the renovation of the
As early as 1999, the St. Louis Cardinals began pushing for the construction of a new
St. Louis is known for its architecture. In recent years there has been a growing movement for historic preservation. An area organization, the National Building Arts Center, advocates for this.
Population and crime issues
Starting in the early 1990s, St. Louis became home to a substantial Bosnian immigrant community, which became the second-largest in the United States in 1999. The city also began to see an increase in immigrants from Mexico, Vietnam, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Many immigrants reported moving to St. Louis, particularly its south side Bevo Mill neighborhood, due to the low cost of living compared to other American cities.[263] Despite this increase, the foreign-born population of the St. Louis region was roughly one-third of the national average in 2010.[264]
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
2000 | 348,189 | — |
2004 | 350,705 | +0.7% |
2006 | 353,837 | +0.9% |
2008 | 356,730 | +0.8% |
2010 | 319,294 | −10.5% |
2011 | 318,069 | −0.4% |
Source: "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2020-03-29. |
During the mid-2000s, the population of St. Louis began growing following a half-century of decline. Census estimates from 2003 through 2008 were successfully challenged and population figures were revised upward; however, no challenges to 2009 data were permitted.
Given the losses of industry and jobs, St. Louis has had significant and persistent problems with both crime and perceptions of crime. In 2011 St. Louis was named by
See also
- National Register of Historic Places listings in St. Louis (city, A–L), Missouri
- National Register of Historic Places listings in St. Louis (city, M–Z), Missouri
- List of mayors of St. Louis
- History of Missouri
- History of education in Missouri
- Timeline of St. Louis
- Catholic Church in French Louisiana
- St. Louis tornado history
- History of Bosnian Americans in St. Louis
- History of Chinese Americans in St. Louis
- History of the Jews in St. Louis, Missouri
- Washington University Hilltop Campus Historic District
Notes
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 1.
- ^ Peregrine (1996), xx.
- ^ Primm (1998), 2.
- ^ a b c d Primm (1998), 3.
- ^ Shepard (1870), 10.
- ^ Primm (1998), 5.
- ^ Shepard (1870), 11.
- ^ a b c d Foley (1983), 4.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 8.
- ^ Primm (1998), 9.
- ^ a b Foley (1983), 5.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 10.
- ^ a b Foley (1983), 6.
- ^ Primm (1998), 15.
- ^ a b c Primm (1998), 17.
- ^ Primm (1998), 22.
- ^ Shepard (1870), 14.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 23.
- ^ Shepard (1870), 15.
- ^ Primm (1998), 31.
- ^ Primm (1998), 33.
- ^ Shepard (1870), 19.
- ^ Van Ravenswaay (1991), 66.
- ^ Primm (1998), 24.
- ^ Primm (1998), 25.
- ^ Primm (1998), 27.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 37.
- ^ Drumm (1931), 642.
- ^ Drumm (1931), 643.
- ^ Drumm (1931), 644.
- ^ Drumm (1931), 647.
- ^ Drumm (1931), 649.
- ^ Primm (1998), 46.
- ^ Primm (1998), 51.
- ^ Primm (1998), 63.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 68.
- ^ According to Primm (1998), 68, Spanish expenditures in Louisiana were $795,000, with only $68,000 in customs revenue.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 69.
- ^ Primm (1998), 72.
- ^ Primm (1998), 76.
- ^ Rodriguez (2002), 227.
- ^ a b c Primm (1998), 96.
- ^ Primm (1998), 99.
- ^ Primm (1998), 97.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 104.
- ^ Primm (1998), 116.
- ^ Primm (1998), 117.
- ^ Primm (1998), 118–119.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 120.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 122.
- ^ a b c Primm (1998), 91.
- ^ Primm (1998), 92.
- ^ Primm (1998), 93.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 94.
- ^ a b c d Primm (1998), 95.
- ^ a b c Wayman (1986), 27.
- ^ Primm (1998), 123.
- ^ Ambrose (1997), 133–134
- ^ Primm (1998), 86.
- ^ Primm (1998), 107.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 108.
- ^ Conard Vol. 5 (1901), 139.
- ^ Primm (1998), 135.
- ^ Primm (1998), 134.
- ^ Primm (1998), 141.
- ^ Morgan (1953), 26.
- ^ Morgan (1953), 7
- ^ Primm (1998), 126.
- ^ Primm (1998), 128.
- ^ Primm (1998), 132.
- ^ Conard Vol. 2 (1901), 492.
- ^ Primm (1998), 144.
- ^ Primm (1998), 143.
- ^ Primm (1998), 147.
- ^ Primm (1998), 155.
- ^ Primm (1998), 157.
- ^ Primm (1998), 146.
- ^ Primm (1998), 167.
- ^ Primm (1998), 150.
- ^ Primm (1998), 152.
- ^ Primm (1998), 89.
- ^ Primm (1998), 90.
- ^ Faherty (1968), 447.
- ^ Faherty (1968), 449.
- ^ Faherty (1968), 450.
- ^ Primm (1998), 166.
- ^ a b Van Ravenswaay (1991), 451.
- ^ a b c Primm (1998), 315.
- ^ Philip Dine (September 18, 1992). "St. Louis Ties Send Mantia To Washington". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Business 10D.
Bernard's and Mantia's wives went to the same high school, the old Central High School on Natural Bridge — the oldest high school west of the Mississippi River.
- ^ Jeannette Batz Cooperman (November 18, 2004). "There Will Always Be a Central High School". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Get Out 18.
It's endured six moves and a name change, but St. Louis' first public institution of "higher education" marks its 150th anniversary on Tuesday with a gala at UMSL.
- ^ Primm (1998), 316.
- ^ a b Mitchell (1986), 331.
- ^ a b c Primm (1998), 179.
- ^ Hodes (2009), 20.
- ^ Hodes (2009), 18.
- ^ National Park Service (2011).
- ^ Primm (1998), 228.
- ^ Hodes (2009), 8.
- ^ Hodes (2009), 11.
- ^ Primm (1998), 164.
- ^ Faherty (2001), xi.
- ^ Faherty (2001), 12.
- ^ Primm (1998), 165.
- ^ Conard Vol 4 (1901), 1913.
- ^ Conard Vol. 4 (1901), 1914.
- ^ Primm (1998), 171.
- ^ Primm (1998), 172.
- ^ Primm (1998), 229.
- ^ Primm (1998), 232.
- ^ Primm (1998), 236.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 237.
- ^ Anderson, Galusha (1908). The Story of a Border City During the Civil War. Little, Brown & Co.
- ^ Primm (1998), 242.
- ^ Primm (1998), 255.
- ^ Primm (1998), 265.
- ^ a b Arenson (2011), 218.
- ^ Primm (1998), 266.
- ^ a b Hurley (1997), 152.
- ^ Primm (1998), 267.
- ^ Primm (1998), 306.
- ^ O'Neil, Tim (August 7, 2021). "Aug. 7, 1954: Decision to clear Mill Creek Valley changed the face of the city". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Retrieved 2022-02-05.
- ^ Gwen Moore, Curator of Urban Landscape and Community Identity at the Missouri Historical Society (ed.). "Museum Studies, Heritage, and Public History: Mill Creek Valley history". University of Missouri–St. Louis. Retrieved 2022-02-05.
- ^ Naffziger, Chris (2020-11-30). "The historic bridges over the Mill Creek railroad tracks, part 1". Retrieved 2022-02-05.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 278.
- ^ Primm (1998), 287.
- ^ Primm (1998), 289.
- ^ Primm (1998), 291.
- ^ Primm (1998), 294.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 297.
- ^ Primm (1998), 317, 324.
- ^ Norman (1964), 514.
- ^ Primm (1998), 317-19.
- ^ Diane Ravitch, The Revisionists Revised: A Critique of the Radical Attack on the Schools (1978) pp 32-41
- ^ Selwyn K. Troen, The Public and the Schools: Shaping the St. Louis System 1838–1920 (1975) pp 151, 224-26, quoted in Ravitch, The Revisionists Revised, pp 55-56
- ^ Primm (1998), 299.
- ^ Primm (1998), 300.
- ^ Primm (1998), 305.
- ^ Arenson (2011), 210.
- ^ Arenson (2011), 212.
- ^ a b c d e Hurley (1997), 148.
- ^ Primm (1998), 327.
- ^ Primm (1998), 328.
- ^ .
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 196.
- ^ Primm (1998), 328030.
- ^ Craughwell (2011), 22, 48.
- ^ O'Neil, Tim. "A Look Back • 1877 railroad strike paralyzed city, spread to foundries, canneries, docks and more". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Retrieved 2019-03-03.
- ISBN 9781430443896. Archived from the original on November 24, 2016.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ Stevens, Walter Barlow (1909). History of St. Louis, The Fourth City, 1764-1909. St. Louis: S. J. Clarke Publishing Company. pp. 76–77.
- ^ Hurley (1997), 150.
- ^ Hurley (1997), 156.
- ^ Mitchell (1986), 332.
- ^ Owsley (2006), 1.
- ^ Owsley (2006), 2.
- ^ Owsley (2006), 6.
- ^ a b c Feldmann (2009), 8.
- ^ Primm (1998), 424.
- ^ a b Swaine (2009), 62.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 372.
- ^ Primm (1998), 375.
- ^ Primm (1998), 376.
- ^ Primm (1998), 379.
- ^ Primm (1998), 382.
- ^ Arenson (2011), 217.
- ^ Primm (1998), 397.
- ^ Primm (1998), 407.
- ^ Primm (1998), 408.
- ^ Primm (1998), 448.
- ^ Primm (1998), 449.
- ^ Primm (1998), 450.
- ^ a b c d Missouri Historical Society (2007).
- ^ a b c Lambert-St. Louis International Airport (2011).
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 410.
- ^ Primm (1998), 411.
- ^ Primm (1998), 413.
- ^ Primm (1998), 414.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 416.
- ^ Sullivan (2009), 75.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 441.
- ^ Primm (1998), 434.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 435.
- ^ "How Public Health Policies Saved Citizens in St. Louis During the 1918 Flu Pandemic". bioMérieux Connection. 2018-10-25. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
- ^ "St. Louis, Missouri and the 1918-1919 Influenza Epidemic". The American Influenza Epidemic of 1918: A Digital Encyclopedia. 2019-02-13. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
- ^ Mounk, Yascha (2020-03-10). "Cancel Everything". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
- ^ Primm (1998), 436.
- ^ Primm (1998), 439.
- ^ Primm (1998), 443.
- ^ Primm (1998), 444.
- ^ a b Burnett (1987), 2
- ^ a b Burnett (1987), 23.
- ^ Burnett (1987), 152.
- ^ Burnett (1987), 28.
- ^ Burnett (1987), 9.
- ^ Burnett (1987), 14.
- ^ Burnett (1987), 30.
- ^ Burnett (1987), 117.
- ^ Burnett (1987), 42.
- ^ a b Burnett (1998), 114.
- ^ Burnett (1987), 115.
- ^ Zimmer (2000).
- ^ Burnett (1987), 145.
- ^ Burnett (1987), 148.
- ^ Burnett (1987), 162.
- ^ a b c Primm (1998), 445.
- ^ a b Forstall (1995).
- ^ a b c d e Morrison (1974), 758.
- ^ a b Larsen (2004), 43.
- ^ a b Morrison (1974), 759.
- ^ Primm (1998), 452.
- ^ Primm (1998), 454.
- ^ Primm (1998), 455.
- ^ Primm (1998), 456.
- ^ Primm (1998), 458.
- ^ Primm (1998), 459.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 460.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 468.
- ^ Looker (2004), 23–24.
- ^ Primm (1998), 461.
- ^ Primm (1998), 462.
- ^ Primm (1998), 464.
- ^ Primm (1998), 467.
- ^ Primm (1998), 470.
- ^ Primm (1998), 457.
- ^ Ling (2004), 1.
- ^ Primm (1998), 476.
- ^ Primm (1998), 447.
- ^ a b Primm (1998), 477.
- ^ Primm (1998), 480.
- ^ Primm (1998), 481.
- ^ Quoted in Stein (2002), 189.
- ^ Stein (2002), 189.
- ^ Stein (1991), 39.
- ^ Primm (1998), 503.
- ^ Primm (1998), 504.
- ^ Freivogel (2002), 211.
- ^ William Freivogel, "St. Louis: Desegregation and School Choice in the Land of Dred Scott" (Century Foundation Press, September 17, 2002) online pp 209-35
- ^ a b Freivogel (2002), 213.
- ^ Freivogel (2002), 216.
- ^ a b Freivogel (2002), 217.
- ^ Freivogel (2002), 230.
- ^ a b VICC (2012).
- ^ a b c VICC (2010).
- ^ Freivogel (2002), 218.
- ^ Freivogel (2002), 222.
- ^ Justin D. Smith, "Hostile Takeover: The State of Missouri, the St. Louis School District, and the Struggle for Quality Education in the Inner-City: Board of Education of the City of St. Louis V. Missouri State Board of Education" Missouri Law Review 74#4 (2009) online
- ^ a b c d e Stein (2002), 194.
- ^ St. Louis Business Journal (August 3, 2004).
- ^ UPI (August 4, 1985).
- ^ a b Brown (May 9, 2010).
- ^ Volkmann (May 17, 2011).
- ^ Newmark (October 2, 2011)
- ^ a b Miklasz (March 16, 1995).
- ^ Kee (April 26, 1995).
- ^ Fox Theatre (2011).
- ^ Sharoff (June 24, 2001).
- ^ Volkmann (April 13, 2011).
- ^ Downtown St. Louis Residential Report (2010).
- ^ a b Old Post Office Redevelopment (2010).
- ^ Tritto (June 20, 2010).
- ^ Vespereny (February 7, 1999).
- ^ a b St. Louis Business Journal (March 20, 2002).
- ^ Brown (February 8, 2013).
- ^ Kotkin (April 25, 1999).
- ^ Nicklaus (March 29, 2010).
- ^ a b American Factfinder.
- ^ Kurtzleben (February 16, 2011).
- ^ CQ Press (2010).
- ^ U.S. Conference of Mayors (November 21, 2010).
- ^ FBI (2009).
- ^ a b CDC (May 13, 2011).
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- Forstall needs to be added to the references
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{{cite news}}
:|author=
has generic name (help) - Sullivan, Patricia (2009). Lift Every Voice: The NAACP and the Making of the Civil Rights Movement. New York: The New Press. ISBN 978-1-59558-446-5.
- Swaine, Rick (2009). The Integration of Major League Baseball: a Team by Team History. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland and Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-3903-4.
- Tritto, Chris (June 20, 2010). "Roberts Cos. sells towers for $88 million". St. Louis Business Journal. St. Louis, Missouri. Retrieved June 24, 2011.
- UPI (August 4, 1985). "Mall to open on Thursday; spurs downtown St. Louis". Bulletin-Journal. Cape Girardeau, Missouri. p. 18. Retrieved June 22, 2011.
- "U.S. Conference of Mayors denounces crime rankings as bogus, damaging to cities" (PDF) (Press release). U.S. Conference of Mayors. November 21, 2010. Retrieved June 24, 2011.
- Van Ravenswaay, Charles (1991). St. Louis: An Informal History of the City and Its People, 1764-1865. St. Louis, Missouri: Missouri Historical Society Press. ISBN 978-0-252-01915-9.
- Vespereny, Cynthia (February 7, 1999). "Cards go to bat for stadium". St. Louis Business Journal. St. Louis, Missouri. Retrieved June 24, 2011.
- Voluntary Interdistrict Choice Corporation (VICC) (February 2010). "Frequently Asked Questions" (PDF). VICC. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 26, 2012. Retrieved June 22, 2011.
- Voluntary Interdistrict Choice Corporation (VICC) (October 19, 2012). "VICC Board Extends Enrollment of New Transfer Students" (PDF) (Press release). VICC. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 3, 2015. Retrieved April 3, 2013.
- Volkmann, Kelsey (April 13, 2011). "Laurel Apartments start taking reservations". St. Louis Business Journal. St. Louis, Missouri. Retrieved June 22, 2011.
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- Zimmer, Keith B. (February 2000). "Casualty List of Soldiers From St. Louis Who Died During World War II". St. Louis Public Library. Archived from the original on September 5, 2011. Retrieved June 22, 2011.
Further reading
- Adler, Jeffrey S. Yankee Merchants and the Making of the Urban West: The Rise and Fall of Antebellum St. Louis (Cambridge University Press, 1991)
- Allison, Jo. Storied & Scandalous St. Louis: A History of Breweries, Baseball, Prejudice, and Protest (Rowman & Littlefield, 2021).
- Anderson, Galusha. The Story of a Border City During the Civil War (1908) online.
- Arenson, Adam. The Great Heart of the Republic: St. Louis and the Cultural Civil War (2010) excerpt
- Belcher, Wyatt Winton. The Economic Rivalry between St. Louis and Chicago, 1850–1880 (Columbia University Press, 1947)
- Cowan, Aaron. A Nice Place to Visit: Tourism and Urban Revitalization in the Postwar Rustbelt (2016) compares Cincinnati, St. Louis, Pittsburgh, and Baltimore in the wake of deindustrialization.
- Gersman, Elinor Mondale. "Education in St. Louis, 1880-1900: a case study of schools in society" (PhD dissertation, Washington University in St. Louis, 1969; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1969. 7010952).
- Gersman, Elinor Mondale. "Progressive reform of the St. Louis school board, 1897." History of Education Quarterly 10.1 (1970): 3-21. online
- Gerteis, Louis S. (2001). Civil War St. Louis. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1124-9.
- Hodes, Frederick A. (2004). Rising on the River: a History of St. Louis to 1821. Tooele, Utah: Patrice Press.
- Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds. Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820-1980 (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980. online; see index at p. 411 for list.
- Jackson, Robert Wendell (2001). Rails Across the Mississippi: A History of the St. Louis Bridge. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-02680-5.
- Lieb, Fred. The Baltimore Orioles: The History of a Colorful Team in Baltimore and St. Louis (SIU Press, 2005).
- Leidecker, Kurt F. Yankee Teacher: The Life of William Torrey Harris (1946) online
- Lossos, David A. (2005). Then & Now: St. Louis. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0738539553.
- March, David D. "Charles Daniel Drake of St. Louis," Missouri Historical Society Bulletin 9#2 (April 1953): 291–310, leader of Radical Republicans.
- Primm, James Neal. Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 1764–1980 (3rd ed. Missouri Historical Society Press, 1998), a major scholarly history.
- Roediger, David. " '‘Not Only the Ruling Classes to Overcome, but Also the So-Called Mob': Class, Skill and Community in the St. Louis General Strike of 1877." Journal of Social History 19#2 (1985), pp. 213–39. online
- Schnell, J. Christopher. "Chicago versus St. Louis: A Reassessment of the Great Rivalry." Missouri Historical Review 71.3 (1977): 245–265.
- Shepley, Carol Ferring. Movers and shakers, scalawags and suffragettes: Tales from Bellefontaine Cemetery (Missouri History Museum, 2008) short biographies of local notables.
- Sonderman, Joe; Mike Truax (2008). St. Louis 1904 World's Fair. Images of America. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-6147-9.
- Spencer, Thomas (2000). The St. Louis Veiled Prophet Celebration: Power on Parade, 1877-1995. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-1-883982-40-9.
- Thomas, Lewis F. "Decline of St. Louis as Midwest Metropolis." Economic Geography 25.2 (1949): 118–127. in JSTOR
- Troen, Selwyn K. "Popular Education in Nineteenth Century St. Louis" History of Education Quarterly 13#1 (1973), pp. 23–40 in JSTOR
- Wade, Richard. The urban frontier : pioneer life in early Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Lexington, Louisville, and St. Louis (1959) online
- Wagner, Allen Eugene. Good Order and Safety: A History of the St. Louis Metropolitan Police Department, 1861-1906 (Missouri History Museum, 2008).
- Young, Andrew D. (1988). The St. Louis Streetcar Story. Interurbans Special. Vol. 108. Glendale, California: Interurban Press. ISBN 978-0-916374-79-2.
Ethnicity, race, religion and gender
- Adler, Jeffrey S. "Streetwalkers, degraded outcasts, and good-for-nothing huzzies: women and the dangerous class in antebellum St. Louis." Journal of Social History (1992): 737-755. online
- Baumann, Timothy, et al. "Interpreting Uncomfortable History at the Scott Joplin House State Historic Site in St. Louis, Missouri." Public Historian 33.2 (2011): 37–66. online
- Blum, Virgil C. "The Political and Military Activities of the German Element in St. Louis, 1859-1861." Missouri Historical Review 42 (January 1948): 103-129. online
- Christensen, Lawrence O. (1972). Black St. Louis: a Study in Race Relations, 1865–1916. St. Louis, Missouri: University of Missouri Press.
- Clamorgan, Cyprian (1999). Winch, Julie (ed.). The Colored Aristocracy of St. Louis. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-1236-8.
- Corbett, Katharine T. In Her Place: A Guide to St. Louis Women's History (Missouri History Museum, 1999).
- Early, Gerald, ed. (1998). Ain't But a Place: an Anthology of African American Writings about St. Louis. St. Louis, Missouri: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-1-883982-28-7.
- Ehrlich, Walter. Zion in the Valley: The Jewish Community of St. Louis (2 vol. 2002)
- Ervin, Keona K. Gateway to equality: Black women and the struggle for economic justice in St. Louis (University Press of Kentucky, 2017).
- Faherty, William Barnaby. The St. Louis German Catholics (Reedy Press, 2004)
- Faherty, William Barnaby. The St. Louis Irish: An Unmatched Celtic Community (Missouri Historical Society Press— distributed by University of Missouri Press, 2001).
- Gersman, Elinor Mondale. "The Development of Public Education for Blacks in Nineteenth Century St. Louis, Missouri." Journal of Negro Education 41.1 (1972): 35-47. online
- Graff, Daniel A. (2004). "Race, Citizenship, and the Origins of Organized Labor in Antebellum St. Louis". In Morris Spencer, Thomas (ed.). The Other Missouri History: Populists, Prostitutes, and Regular Folk. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press. pp. 50–80. ISBN 978-0-8262-1565-9.
- Hinds, Sarah. "In Defense of the Faith: The Catholic Response to Anti-Catholicism in Early Nineteenth-Century St. Louis." The Confluence 7.1 (2015): 2+ online.
- Jack, Bryan M. (2007). Saint Louis African Americans and the Exodusters. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-1772-1.
- Johnson, Walter. The Broken Heart of America: St. Louis and the Violent History of the United States (2020); focus on racial tensions excerpt
- Jolly, Kenneth S. (2006). Black Liberation in the Midwest: the Struggle in St. Louis, Missouri, 1964–1970. New York: Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-415-97969-6.
- Kimbrough, Mary (2000). Victory Without Violence: the First Ten Years of the St. Louis Committee on Racial Equality (CORE), 1947–1957. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-1303-7.
- Krause, Bonnie J. "German Americans in the St. Louis Region, 1840-1860." Missouri Historical Review 83 (April 1989): 295-310. online
- Kupsky, Gregory "We, Too, Are Still Here: German Americans in St. Louis, 1919-1941." Missouri Historical Review 103 (July 2009): 212-225. online
- Lang, Clarence (May 2008). "Civil Rights Versus Civic Progress: The St. Louis NAACP and the City Charter Fight, 1956-1957". Journal of Urban History. 34 (4): 609–638. S2CID 145252298.
- Lee, Jacob F. "Race, Empire, and Capital in St. Louis From William Clark to Michael Brown." Reviews in American History 49.1 (2021): 149–158. excerpt
- Ling, Huping (January 2002). ""Hop Alley": Myth and Reality of the St. Louis Chinatown, 1860s-1930s". Journal of Urban History. 28 (2): 184–219. S2CID 145649985.
- Ling, Huping (2007). Chinese in St. Louis: 1851-2007. Images of America. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-5145-6.
- Lumpkins, Charles L. (2008). American Pogrom: the East St. Louis Race Riot and Black Politics. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-8214-1802-4.
- Makovsky, Donald I., "Joseph, Jacob, and Simon Philipson: The First Jewish Settlers in St. Louis, 1807–1858," Western States Jewish History 45 (Fall 2012), 55–72
- Morris, Ann; Wesley, Doris, eds. (1999). Lift Every Voice and Sing: St. Louis African Americans in the Twentieth Century. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-1253-5.
- Murphy, Patrick. The Irish in St. Louis: From Shanty to Lace Curtain (Reedy Press, 2022)
- Olson, Sister Audrey "The Nature of an Immigrant Community: St. Louis Germans, 1850-1920." Missouri Historical Review 66 (April 1972): 342-359. online
- OLSON, AUDREY LOUISE. "ST. LOUIS GERMANS, 1850-1920: THE NATURE OF AN IMMIGRANT COMMUNITY AND ITS RELATION TO THE ASSIMILATION PROCESS" (PhD dissertation, University of Kansas; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1970. 7025388).
- Owsley, Dennis C. St. Louis Jazz: A History (Arcadia Publishing, 2019).
- Owsley, Dennis. City of Gabriels: The history of jazz in St. Louis, 1895-1973 (Reedy Press, 2006).
- Richardson, Chris "With Liberty and Justice for All?: The Suppression of the German-American Culture During World War I." Missouri Historical Review 90 (October 1995): 79-89. online
- Ritter, Luke, "Sunday Regulation and the Formation of German American Identity in St. Louis, 1840–1860," Missouri Historical Review, (2012), 107#1 pp 23–40
- Ritter, Luke. "The St. Louis Know-Nothing Riot of 1854: Political Violence and the Rise of the Irish." Gateway Heritage Magazine 32 (2012): 27-35.
- Trautmann, Frederic "Missouri through a German's Eyes: Franz Von Löher on St. Louis and Hermann." Missouri Historical Review 77 (July 1983): 367-694. online, based on 1840s and 1850s
- Wright, John Aaron (2004). St. Louis: Disappearing Black Communities. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-3362-9.
- Wright, John Aaron (2002). Discovering African American St. Louis: A Guide to Historic Sites. St. Louis, Missouri: Missouri Historical Society Press. ISBN 978-1-883982-45-4.
Neighborhoods
- Gordon, Colin. Mapping Decline: St. Louis and the Fate of the American City (2009) excerpt
- Kavanaugh, Maureen O'Connor. Hidden History of Downtown St. Louis (Arcadia Publishing, 2017) excerpt.
- Montesi, Albert; Richard Deposki (2000). Central West End, St. Louis. Images of America. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing.
- Montesi, Albert; Richard Deposki (2001). Downtown St. Louis. Images of America. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-0816-0.
- Montesi, Albert; Richard Deposki (2003). Historic North St. Louis. Images of America. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-2319-4.
- Montesi, Albert; Richard Deposki (1999). Lafayette Square, St. Louis. Images of America. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing.
- Montesi, Albert; Richard Deposki (2000). Soulard, St. Louis. Images of America. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing.
- Montesi, Albert; Richard Deposki (2004). St. Louis Garden District. Images of America. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-3259-2.
- Montesi, Albert; Richard Deposki (2002). St. Louis Union Station. Images of America. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-1983-8.
- Sandweiss, Eric. St. Louis: The Evolution of an American Urban Landscape (Temple University Press, 2001)
- Tranel, Mark, ed. St. Louis Plans: The Ideal and the Real St. Louis (Missouri Historical Society, 2007) 404 pp.
External links
- Missouri History Museum
- St. Louis Circuit Court Records, A collection of images and transcripts of 19th century Circuit Court Cases in St. Louis, particularly freedom suits, including suits brought by Dred and Harriet Scott. A partnership of Washington University and Missouri History Museum, funded by an IMLS grant
- St. Louis Circuit Court Records (includes court case documents relating to the Lewis and Clark Expedition, freedom suits, the fur trade, and Native American relations)
- Landmarks Association of St. Louis
- St. Louis Preservation Society
- Built St. Louis (architectural history of St. Louis)
- History's Time Portal to Old St. Louis (genealogical history of St. Louis)