World's Columbian Exposition
1893 Brussels International (1897) in Brussels |
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The World's Columbian Exposition, also known as the Chicago World's Fair, was a world's fair held in Chicago from May 5 to October 31, 1893, to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New World in 1492.[1] The centerpiece of the Fair, held in Jackson Park, was a large water pool representing the voyage that Columbus took to the New World. Chicago won the right to host the fair over several competing cities, including New York City, Washington, D.C., and St. Louis. The exposition was an influential social and cultural event and had a profound effect on American architecture, the arts, American industrial optimism, and Chicago's image.
The layout of the Chicago Columbian Exposition was predominantly designed by John Wellborn Root, Daniel Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted, and Charles B. Atwood.[2][3] It was the prototype of what Burnham and his colleagues thought a city should be. It was designed to follow Beaux-Arts principles of design, namely neoclassical architecture principles based on symmetry, balance, and splendor. The color of the material generally used to cover the buildings' façades white staff gave the fairgrounds its nickname, the White City. Many prominent architects designed its 14 "great buildings". Artists and musicians were featured in exhibits and many also made depictions and works of art inspired by the exposition.
The exposition covered 690 acres (2.8 km2), featuring nearly 200 new but temporary buildings of predominantly neoclassical architecture, canals and lagoons, and people and cultures from 46 countries.[1] More than 27 million people attended the exposition during its six-month run. Its scale and grandeur far exceeded the other world's fairs, and it became a symbol of emerging American exceptionalism, much in the same way that the Great Exhibition became a symbol of the Victorian era United Kingdom.
Dedication ceremonies for the fair were held on October 21, 1892, but the fairgrounds were not actually opened to the public until May 1, 1893. The fair continued until October 30, 1893. In addition to recognizing the 400th anniversary of the "discovery of the New World" from the European perspective, the fair also served to show the world that Chicago had risen from the ashes of the Great Chicago Fire, which had destroyed much of the city in 1871.[1]
On October 9, 1893, the day designated as Chicago Day, the fair set a world record for outdoor event attendance, drawing 751,026 people. The debt for the fair was soon paid off with a check for $1.5 million (equivalent to $50.9 million in 2023).[4] Chicago has commemorated the fair with one of the stars on its municipal flag.[5]
History
Planning and organization
Many prominent civic, professional, and commercial leaders from around the United States participated in the financing, coordination, and management of the Fair, including Chicago shoe company owner Charles H. Schwab,
The fair was planned in the early 1890s during the
The first American attempt at a
Chicago representatives not only fought for the world's fair for monetary reasons, but also for reasons of practicality. In a Senate hearing held in January 1890, representative Thomas Barbour Bryan argued that the most important qualities for a world's fair were "abundant supplies of good air and pure water", "ample space, accommodations and transportation for all exhibits and visitors". He argued that New York had too many obstructions, and Chicago would be able to use large amounts of land around the city where there was "not a house to buy and not a rock to blast" and that it would be located so that "the artisan and the farmer and the shopkeeper and the man of humble means" would be able to easily access the fair. Bryan continued to say that the fair was of "vital interest" to the West, and that the West wanted the location to be Chicago. The city spokesmen would continue to stress the essentials of a successful exposition and that only Chicago was fit to fill these exposition requirements.[10]
The location of the fair was decided through several rounds of voting by the United States House of Representatives. The first ballot showed Chicago with a large lead over New York, St. Louis and Washington, D.C., but short of a majority. Chicago broke the 154-vote majority threshold on the eighth ballot, receiving 157 votes to New York's 107.[11]
The exposition corporation and national exposition commission settled on Jackson Park and an area around it as the fair site. Daniel H. Burnham was selected as director of works, and George R. Davis as director-general. Burnham emphasized architecture and sculpture as central to the fair and assembled the period's top talent to design the buildings and grounds including Frederick Law Olmsted for the grounds.[1] The temporary buildings were designed in an ornate neoclassical style and painted white, resulting in the fair site being referred to as the "White City".[9]
The Exposition's offices set up shop in the upper floors of the
Civil rights leaders protested the refusal to include an African American exhibit. Frederick Douglass, Ida B. Wells, Irvine Garland Penn, and Ferdinand Lee Barnet co-authored a pamphlet entitled "The Reason Why the Colored American is not in the World's Columbian Exposition – The Afro-American's Contribution to Columbian Literature" addressing the issue. Wells and Douglass argued, "when it is asked why we are excluded from the World's Columbian Exposition, the answer is Slavery."[13] Ten thousand copies of the pamphlet were circulated in the White City from the Haitian Embassy (where Douglass had been selected as its national representative), and the activists received responses from the delegations of England, Germany, France, Russia, and India.[13]
The exhibition did include a limited number of exhibits put on by African Americans, including exhibits by the sculptor Edmonia Lewis, a painting exhibit by scientist George Washington Carver, and a statistical exhibit by Joan Imogen Howard. Black individuals were also featured in white exhibits, such as Nancy Green's portrayal of the character Aunt Jemima for the R. T. Davis Milling Company.[14]
Operation
The fair opened in May and ran through October 30, 1893. Forty-six nations participated in the fair (it was the first world's fair to have national pavilions),[15] constructing exhibits and pavilions and naming national "delegates" (for example, Haiti selected Frederick Douglass to be its delegate).[16] The Exposition drew over 27 million visitors.[17] The fair was originally meant to be closed on Sundays, but the Chicago Woman's Club petitioned that it stay open.[18][19] The club felt that if the exposition was closed on Sunday, it would restrict those who could not take off work during the work-week from seeing it.[20]
The exposition was located in Jackson Park and on the Midway Plaisance on 630 acres (2.5 km2) in the neighborhoods of South Shore, Jackson Park Highlands, Hyde Park, and Woodlawn. Charles H. Wacker was the director of the fair. The layout of the fairgrounds was created by Frederick Law Olmsted, and the Beaux-Arts architecture of the buildings was under the direction of Daniel Burnham, Director of Works for the fair. Renowned local architect Henry Ives Cobb designed several buildings for the exposition. The director of the American Academy in Rome, Francis Davis Millet, directed the painted mural decorations. Indeed, it was a coming-of-age for the arts and architecture of the "American Renaissance", and it showcased the burgeoning neoclassical and Beaux-Arts styles.
Assassination of mayor and end of fair
The fair ended with the city in shock, as popular mayor Carter Harrison Sr. was assassinated by Patrick Eugene Prendergast two days before the fair's closing.[21] Closing ceremonies were canceled in favor of a public memorial service.
Jackson Park was returned to its status as a public park, in much better shape than its original swampy form. The lagoon was reshaped to give it a more natural appearance, except for the straight-line northern end where it still laps up against the steps on the south side of the Palace of Fine Arts/Museum of Science & Industry building. The
Attractions
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2019) |
The World's Columbian Exposition was the first world's fair with an area for amusements that was strictly separated from the exhibition halls. This area, developed by a young music promoter, Sol Bloom, concentrated on Midway Plaisance and introduced the term "midway" to American English to describe the area of a carnival or fair where sideshows are located.[23]
It included carnival rides, among them the original Ferris Wheel, built by George Washington Gale Ferris Jr.[1] This wheel was 264 feet (80 m) high and had 36 cars, each of which could accommodate 40 people.[1][24] The importance of the Columbian Exposition is highlighted by the use of rueda de Chicago ("Chicago wheel") in many Latin American countries such as Costa Rica and Chile in reference to the Ferris wheel.[25] One attendee, George C. Tilyou, later credited the sights he saw on the Chicago midway for inspiring him to create America's first major amusement park, Steeplechase Park in Coney Island, New York.
The fair included life-size reproductions of Christopher Columbus' three ships, the
Eadweard Muybridge gave a series of lectures on the Science of Animal Locomotion in the Zoopraxographical Hall, built specially for that purpose on Midway Plaisance. He used his zoopraxiscope to show his moving pictures to a paying public. The hall was the first commercial movie theater.[30]
The "Street in Cairo" included the popular dancer known as
Also included was the first moving walkway or travelator, which was designed by architect Joseph Lyman Silsbee. It had two different divisions: one where passengers were seated, and one where riders could stand or walk. It ran in a loop down the length of a lakefront pier to a casino.
Although denied a spot at the fair,
The
Louis Comfort Tiffany made his reputation with a stunning chapel designed and built for the Exposition. After the Exposition the Tiffany Chapel was sold several times, even going back to Tiffany's estate. It was eventually reconstructed and restored and in 1999 it was installed at the Charles Hosmer Morse Museum of American Art.
Architect Kirtland Cutter's Idaho Building, a rustic log construction, was a popular favorite,[33] visited by an estimated 18 million people.[34] The building's design and interior furnishings were a major precursor of the Arts and Crafts movement.
Among the other attractions at the fair, several products that are well-known today were introduced. These products included
Anthropology
There was an Anthropology Building at the World's Fair. Nearby, "The Cliff Dwellers" featured a rock and timber structure that was painted to recreate Battle Rock Mountain in Colorado, a stylized recreation of an American Indian cliff dwelling with pottery, weapons, and other relics on display.[35] There was also an Eskimo display. There were also birch bark wigwams of the Penobscot tribe. Nearby was a working model Indian school, organized by the Office of Indian Affairs, that housed delegations of Native American students and their teachers from schools around the country for weeks at a time.[36]
Rail
The
A Baldwin 2-4-2 locomotive was showcased at the exposition, and subsequently the 2-4-2 type was known as the Columbia.
An original
Transportation by rail was the major mode of transportation. A 26 track train station was built at the South West corner of the fair. While trains from around the country would unload there, there was a local train to shuttle tourists from the Chicago Grand Central Station to the fair.
Country and state exhibition buildings
Forty-six countries had pavilions at the exposition.[1] Norway participated by sending the Viking, a replica of the Gokstad ship. It was built in Norway and sailed across the Atlantic Ocean by 12 men, led by Captain Magnus Andersen. In 1919, this ship was moved to Lincoln Park. It was relocated in 1996 to Good Templar Park in Geneva, Illinois, where it awaits renovation.[37][38]
Thirty-four U.S. states also had their own pavilions.[1] The work of noted feminist author Kate McPhelim Cleary was featured during the opening of the Nebraska Day ceremonies at the fair, which included a reading of her poem "Nebraska".[39] Among the state buildings present at the fair were California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Texas; each was meant to be architecturally representative of the corresponding states.[40]
Four
Visitors to the Louisiana Pavilion were each given a seedling of a cypress tree. This resulted in the spread of cypress trees to areas where they were not native. Cypress trees from those seedlings can be found in many areas of West Virginia, where they flourish in the climate.[41]
The Illinois was a detailed, full-scale mockup of an Indiana-class battleship, constructed as a naval exhibit.
Guns and artillery
The German firm Krupp had a pavilion of artillery, which apparently had cost one million dollars to stage,[42] including a coastal gun of 42 cm in bore (16.54 inches) and a length of 33 calibres (45.93 feet, 14 meters). A breech-loaded gun, it weighed 120.46 long tons (122.4 metric tons). According to the company's marketing: "It carried a charge projectile weighing from 2,200 to 2,500 pounds which, when driven by 900 pounds of brown powder, was claimed to be able to penetrate at 2,200 yards a wrought-iron plate three feet thick if placed at right angles."[43]
Nicknamed "The Thunderer", the gun had an advertised range of 15 miles. On this occasion
Religions
The 1893 Parliament of the World's Religions, which ran from September 11 to September 27, marked the first formal gathering of representatives of Eastern and Western spiritual traditions from around the world. According to Eric J. Sharpe, Tomoko Masuzawa, and others, the event was considered radical at the time, since it allowed non-Christian faiths to speak on their own behalf.[45] For example, it is recognized as the first public mention of the Baháʼí Faith in North America.;[46] it was not taken seriously by European scholars until the 1960s.[45]
Moving walkway
Along the banks of the lake, patrons on the way to the casino were taken on a moving walkway designed by architect Joseph Lyman Silsbee, the first of its kind open to the public,[47] called The Great Wharf, Moving Sidewalk, it allowed people to walk along or ride in seats.[48]
Horticulture
Horticultural exhibits at the Horticultural Hall included
Architecture
White City
Most of the buildings of the fair were designed in the neoclassical architecture style. The area at the Court of Honor was known as The White City. Façades were made not of stone, but of a mixture of plaster, cement, and jute fiber called staff, which was painted white, giving the buildings their "gleam". Architecture critics derided the structures as "decorated sheds.” The buildings were clad in white stucco, which, in comparison to the tenements of Chicago, seemed illuminated. It was also called the White City because of the extensive use of street lights, which made the boulevards and buildings usable at night.
In 1892, working under extremely tight deadlines to complete construction, director of works Daniel Burnham appointed
Many of the buildings included sculptural details and, to meet the Exposition's opening deadline, chief architect Burnham sought the help of
The words "Thine alabaster cities gleam" from the song "America the Beautiful" were inspired by the White City.[52]
Role in the City Beautiful movement
The White City is largely credited for ushering in the City Beautiful movement and planting the seeds of modern city planning. The highly integrated design of the landscapes, promenades, and structures provided a vision of what is possible when planners, landscape architects, and architects work together on a comprehensive design scheme.
The White City inspired cities to focus on the beautification of the components of the city in which municipal government had control; streets, municipal art, public buildings, and public spaces. The designs of the City Beautiful Movement (closely tied with the municipal art movement) are identifiable by their classical architecture, plan symmetry, picturesque views, and axial plans, as well as their magnificent scale. Where the municipal art movement focused on beautifying one feature in a city, the City Beautiful movement began to make improvements on the scale of the district. The White City of the World's Columbian Exposition inspired the Merchants Club of Chicago to commission Daniel Burnham to create the Plan of Chicago in 1909.[53]
Great buildings
There were fourteen main "great buildings"[35]: 17 centered around a giant reflective pool called the Grand Basin.[54] Buildings included:
- The Administration Building, designed by Richard Morris Hunt
- The Agricultural Building, designed by Charles McKim of McKim, Mead & White
- The Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, designed by George B. Post. If this building were standing today, it would rank second in volume (8,500,000m3) and third in footprint (130,000m2) on list of largest buildings.[3] It exhibited works related to literature, science, art and music.
- The Mines and Mining Building, designed by Solon Spencer Beman
- The Electricity Building, designed by Henry Van Brunt and Frank Maynard Howe
- The Machinery Hall, designed by Robert Swain Peabody of Peabody and Stearns
- Sophia Hayden
- The Transportation Building, designed by Adler & Sullivan
- The Fisheries Building designed by Henry Ives Cobb[35]: 23
- Forestry Building designed by Charles B. Atwood
- Horticultural Building designed by Jenney and Mundie
- Anthropology Building designed by Charles B. Atwood
Transportation Building
Louis Sullivan's polychrome proto-Modern Transportation Building was an outstanding exception to the prevailing style, as he tried to develop an organic American form. Years later, in 1922, he wrote that the classical style of the White City had set back modern American architecture by forty years.[55]
As detailed in Erik Larson's popular history The Devil in the White City, extraordinary effort was required to accomplish the exposition, and much of it was unfinished on opening day. The famous Ferris Wheel, which proved to be a major attendance draw and helped save the fair from bankruptcy, was not finished until June, because of waffling by the board of directors the previous year on whether to build it. Frequent debates and disagreements among the developers of the fair added many delays. The spurning of Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show proved a serious financial mistake. Buffalo Bill set up his highly popular show next door to the fair and brought in a great deal of revenue that he did not have to share with the developers. Nonetheless, construction and operation of the fair proved to be a windfall for Chicago workers during the serious economic recession that was sweeping the country.[3]
Surviving structures
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Niñareplicas from Spain.
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Viking, a replica of the Gokstad ship.
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After the fair, the White City on fire.
Almost all of the fair's structures were designed to be temporary;
The three other significant buildings that survived the fair represented Norway, the Netherlands, and the State of Maine. The
The 1893 Viking ship that was sailed to the Exposition from Norway by Captain Magnus Andersen, is located in Geneva, Illinois. The ship is open to visitors on scheduled days April through October.[59]
The main altar at
Since many of the other buildings at the fair were intended to be temporary, they were removed after the fair. The White City so impressed visitors (at least before air pollution began to darken the façades) that plans were considered to refinish the exteriors in marble or some other material. These plans were abandoned in July 1894, when much of the fair grounds was destroyed in a fire.
Gallery
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The Administration Building and Grand Court during the October 9, 1893, commemoration of the 22nd anniversary of the Chicago Fire.
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The Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, seen from the southwest.
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Horticultural Building, with Illinois Building in the background.
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A view toward the Peristyle from Machinery Hall.
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Midway Plaisance
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Frederick MacMonnies' Columbian Fountain.
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"Canal of Venice" during Chicago World's Fair 1893
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President Cleveland opens the World's Fair, as depicted by Rudolf Cronau in 1893
Later criticisms
Frank Lloyd Wright later wrote that "By this overwhelming rise of grandomania I was confirmed in my fear that a native architecture would be set back at least fifty years."[60]
According to University of Notre Dame history professor Gail Bederman, the event symbolized a male-dominated and Eurocentrist society. In her 1995 text Manliness and Civilization, she writes, "The White City, with its vision of future perfection and of the advanced racial power of manly commerce and technology, constructed civilization as an ideal of white male power."[13] According to Bederman, people of color were barred entirely from participating in the organization of the White City and were instead given access only to the Midway exhibit, "which specialized in spectacles of barbarous races - 'authentic' villages of Samoans, Egyptians, Dahomans, Turks, and other exotic peoples, populated by actual imported 'natives.'"[13]
Two small exhibits were included in the White City's "Woman's Building" which addressed women of color. One, entitled "Afro-American" was installed in a distant corner of the building.[13] The other, called "Woman's Work in Savagery," included baskets, weavings, and African, Polynesian, and Native American arts. Though they were produced by living women of color, the materials were represented as relics from the distant past, embodying "the work of white women's own distant evolutionary foremothers."[13]
While these shortcomings are evident, it is unclear why this event is singled out for criticism. Depictions of "savage" cultures and the absence of women and minorities in leadership roles were, regrettably, representative of 19th century American society and International World's Fairs alike[61] The 19th Amendment granting women's suffrage only took effect in the United States in 1920. However, nearly thirty years before, the 1893 Chicago World's Fair featured a Women's Building with women as its board of directors. A number of women artists and sculptors were involved more broadly, including the White Rabbits (women sculptors who completed numerous decorative sculptures for the building exteriors) as well as Mary Lawrence, who completed a prominently displayed sculpture of the fair's namesake, Christopher Columbus.[62] In these respects, the 1893 Chicago World's Fair could be characterized as progressive compared to similar events up to that time.
Visitors
Helen Keller, along with her mentor Anne Sullivan and Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, visited the fair in summer of 1893. Keller described the fair in her autobiography The Story of My Life.[63] Early in July, a Wellesley College English teacher named Katharine Lee Bates visited the fair. The White City later inspired the reference to "alabaster cities" in her poem and lyrics "America the Beautiful".[64] The exposition was extensively reported by Chicago publisher William D. Boyce's reporters and artists.[65] There is a very detailed and vivid description of all facets of this fair by the Persian traveler Mirza Mohammad Ali Mo'in ol-Saltaneh written in Persian. He departed from Persia on April 20, 1892, especially for the purpose of visiting the World's Columbian Exposition.[66]
Souvenirs
Examples of exposition souvenirs can be found in various American museum collections. One example, copyrighted in 1892 by John W. Green, is a folding hand fan with detailed illustrations of landscapes and architecture.[69] Charles W Goldsmith produced a set of ten postcard designs, each in full colour, showing the buildings constructed for the exhibition.[70] Columbian Exposition coins were also minted for the event.
Electricity
The effort to power the Fair with electricity, which became a demonstration piece for
Edison General Electric, which at the time was merging with the Thomson-Houston Electric Company to form General Electric, put in a US$1.72 million bid to power the Fair and its planned 93,000 incandescent lamps with direct current. After the Fair committee went over both proposals, Edison General Electric re-bid their costs at $554,000 but Westinghouse under bid them by 70 cents per lamp to get the contract.[72][73] Westinghouse could not use the Edison incandescent lamp since the patent belonged to General Electric and they had successfully sued to stop use of all patent infringing designs. Since Edison specified a sealed globe of glass in his design Westinghouse found a way to sidestep the Edison patent by quickly developing a lamp with a ground glass stopper in one end, based on a Sawyer-Man "stopper" lamp patent they already had. The lamps worked well but were short lived, requiring a small army of workmen to constantly replace them.[73]: 140
Westinghouse Electric had severely underbid the contract and struggled to supply all the equipment specified including twelve 1,000 horsepower single phase AC generators and all the lighting and other equipment required.[74] They also had to fend off a last minute lawsuit by General Electric claiming the Westinghouse Sawyer-Man based stopper lamp infringed on the Edison incandescent lamp patent.[73]: 142
The International Exposition was held in an Electricity Building which was devoted to electrical exhibits. A statue of
All the exhibits were from commercial enterprises. Participants included General Electric, Brush, Western Electric, and Westinghouse. The Westinghouse Company displayed several polyphase systems. The exhibits included a switchboard, polyphase generators, step-up transformers, transmission line, step-down transformers, commercial size induction motors and synchronous motors, and rotary direct current converters (including an operational railway motor). The working scaled system allowed the public a view of a system of polyphase power which could be transmitted over long distances, and be utilized, including the supply of direct current. Meters and other auxiliary devices were also present.
Part of the space occupied by the Westinghouse Company was devoted to demonstrations of electrical devices developed by
Tesla himself showed up for a week in August to attend the International Electrical Congress, being held at the fair's Agriculture Hall, and put on a series of demonstrations of his wireless lighting system in a specially set up darkened room at the Westinghouse exhibit.[79][80] These included demonstrations he had previously performed throughout America and Europe[81] including using a nearby coil to light a wireless gas-discharge lamp held in his hand.[82][81]
Also at the Fair, the
Music
Musicians
- John Philip Sousa′s Band played for the Exposition dedication celebration in Chicago, 10 October through 21 October 1892.
- Joseph Douglass, classical violinist, who achieved wide recognition after his performance there and became the first African-American violinist to conduct a transcontinental tour and the first to tour as a concert violinist.[84][85]
- Sissieretta Jones, a soprano known as "the Black Patti" and an already-famous opera singer.[86]
- A paper on African-American Abigail Christensen was read to attendees.[87]
There were many other black artists at the fair, ranging from minstrel and early ragtime groups to more formal classical ensembles to street buskers.
- Scott Joplin, pianist, from Texarkana, Texas; became widely known for his piano playing at the fair.
Other music and musicians
- The first Indonesian music performance in the United States was at the exposition.[88] The gamelan instruments used in the performance were later placed in the Field Museum of Natural History.
- A group of hula dancers led to increased awareness of Hawaiian music among Americans throughout the country.[89]
- Stoughton Musical Society, the oldest choral society in the United States, presented the first concerts of early American music at the exposition.
- The first eisteddfod (a Welsh choral competition with a history spanning many centuries) held outside Wales was held in Chicago at the exposition.
- A 250-voice Mormon Tabernacle Choir competed in the Eisteddfod taking the second place prize of $1,000. This was the first appearance of the Choir outside the Utah Territory.
- On August 12, 1893, Chicago Symphony, who arranged for performance of Dvořák's American string quartet, just completed in Spillville, Iowa, during a Dvořák family vacation in a Czech-speaking community there.[90]
- American composer Amy Beach (1867–1944) was commissioned by the Board of Lady Managers of the fair to compose a choral work (Festival Jubilate, op. 17) for the opening of the Woman's Building.[91]
- Sousa's Band played concerts in the south bandstand on the Great Plaza, 25 May to 28 June 1893.
- The University of Illinois Military Band conducted by student leaders Charles Elder and Richard Sharpe played concerts twice daily in the Illinois Building 9 June to 24 June 1893. Soloists were William Sandford, euphonium; Charles Elder, clarinet; William Steele, cornet. The band members slept on cots on the top floor of the building.
- On June 8, 1893, The Exposition Orchestra, an expanded version of the A Night on Bald Mountain as part of a concert of Russian folk music.[92]
- A pipe organ containing over 3,900 pipes, one of the largest in the world at the time, was built by the Farrand & Votey Organ Company to the specifications of Chicago organist Clarence Eddy. It was one of the first great organs to rely on electrical connections from its keys to its pipes.[93]
- Musicologist Anna Morsch and composer Charlotte Sporleder presented a program of German music.[94]
- Composer and pianist Anita Socola Specht won the title "best amateur pianist in the United States," although some of the judges told her, "You are not an amateur, you are an artist!"[95]
Art
American artists exhibiting
Painters
- Adam Emory Albright[96]: 202
- Henry Alexander[96]: 202
- Maitland Armstrong[96]: 203
- William Jacob Baer[96]: 203
- William Bliss Baker[96]: 204
- Cecilia Beaux[96]: 204
- James Carroll Beckwith[96]: 205
- Enella Benedict [96]: 206
- Frank Weston Benson[96]: 206
- Daniel Folger Bigelow [96]: 207
- Ralph Albert Blakelock [96]: 207–08
- Edwin Howland Blashfield[96]: 208
- Mary Cassatt[97]
- Sarah Paxton Ball Dodson[98]
- Thomas Eakins
- Charles Morgan McIlhenney[96]: 386
- Gari Melchers[96]: 386–87
- Anna Lea Merritt[99]
- John Harrison Mills[96]: 370
- Robert Crannell Minor[96]: 390
- Louis Moeller
- Harry Humphrey Moore[96]: 390–91
- Edward Moran
- John Singer Sargent
Sculptors
- Sarah Fisher Ames, sculptor[100]
- John J. Boyle sculptor [101]
- Signal of Peace[96]: 362
- Charles Grafly – Bust of Daedalus
- Mary Lawrence, sculptor[102]
- Edward Kemeys[103][104]
- Theo Alice Ruggles Kitson (as Theo Alice Ruggles)[96]: 376
- Aloys Loeher
- Carol Brooks MacNeil (as Caroline Brooks)[96]: 165
- Helen Farnsworth Mears[105]
- Samuel Murray – Bust of Walt Whitman
- William Rudolf O'Donovan – Bust of Thomas Eakins[96]: 371–72
- Bessie Potter[96]: 374
- Peter Moran[96]: 396
- George D. Peterson
- Preston Powers[96]: 374
- Katherine Prescott[96]: 374
- A. Phimister Proctor[96]: 374
- John Rogers[96]: 374
- Carl Rohl-Smith[96]: p. 376
- Lorado Taft[96]: 378
- Douglas Tilden[96]: 375
- Luella Varney[106]
Japanese art
Japan's artistic contribution was mainly in
Women artists exhibiting
The women artists at the
The Woman's Building included a Woman's Building Library Exhibit, which had 7,000 books — all by women. The Woman's Building Library was meant to show the cumulative contribution of the world's women to literature.[113]
"Greatest Refrigerator on Earth" fire tragedy
In the large 255' X 130' Romanesque structure standing almost 200' tall at its highest point, housing both the cold storage for keeping perishables for the food services at the event, and an ice-skating rink for patrons at the level above the cold storage, and referred to as the "Greatest Refrigerator on Earth";[114] underdeveloped safety standards where high-temperature heat sources from machinery is believed to have ignited wooden structure in the building interior, causing the massive fire that caused the deaths of 12 firemen and 4 workers.[115]
Notable firsts
Concepts
- Frontier thesis.[116]
- The Pledge of Allegiance was first performed at the exposition by a mass of school children lined up in military fashion.[117]
- Contribution to Chicago's nickname, the "New York Sun coined the term related to the hype of the city's promoters. Other evidence, however, suggests the term was used as early as 1881 in relation to either Chicago's "windbag" politicians or to its weather.[3]
Commemorations
- Columbian Exposition half dollar[118]
- The United States Post Office Department produced its first picture postcards and Commemorative stamp set[119]
Edibles and potables
- Cream of Wheat
- The brownie was invented by Bertha Palmer for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition.[120]
- Milton Hershey bought a European exhibitor's chocolate manufacturing equipment and added chocolate products to his caramel manufacturing business.[citation needed]
- Juicy Fruit gum [121]
- Quaker Oats[121]
- Shredded Wheat[122]
- Pabst Blue Ribbon[3]
- Peanut butter[123]
- Aunt Jemima pancake mix was widely popularized by spokesperson Nancy Green's pancake cooking and story telling performances.[124]
- Cracker Jack's new recipe was introduced at the Exposition
- Vienna Sausage started selling its frankfurters and sausages near one of the entrances to the Midway Plaisance, just outside the Old Vienna Village. The company later became known as Vienna Beef, famously recognized as "Chicago's Hot Dog".[125]
Inventions and manufacturing advances
- A device that made plates for printing books in Braille, unveiled by Frank Haven Hall, who met Helen Keller and her teacher Anne Sullivan at the exhibit.[3]
- Moving walkway, or travelator
- The third rail giving electric power to elevated trains led directly to its first continuing US use.[126]
- The "clasp locker", a clumsy slide fastener and forerunner to the zipper was demonstrated by Whitcomb L. Judson
- Elongated coins (the squashed penny)
- Ferris Wheel
- First fully electrical kitchen including an automatic dishwasher[3]
- Phosphorescent lamps (a precursor to fluorescent lamps)[3]
- John T. Shayne & Company, the local Chicago furrier helped America gain respect on the world stage of manufacturing
- Clark cell as a standard for measuring voltage
- A first prototype of a pressurized aerosol spray, by Francis Davis Millet.
- The first practical William Morrison.
Organizations
- Congress of Mathematicians, precursor to International Congress of Mathematicians[127]
- Interfaith dialogue (the Parliament of the World's Religions)
- First recorded public mention of the Baháʼí Faith in North America[46]
Performances
- The poet and humorist Benjamin Franklin King, Jr.first performed at the exposition.
- Bodybuilder Eugen Sandow demonstrated feats of strength, promoted by Florenz Ziegfeld.
- Magician Harry Houdini and his brother Theodore performed their magic act at the Midway.
Later years
Postal memorabilia | |
---|---|
|
The exposition was one influence leading to the rise of the City Beautiful movement.[128] Results included grand buildings and fountains built around Olmstedian parks, shallow pools of water on axis to central buildings, larger park systems, broad boulevards and parkways and, after the start of the 20th century, zoning laws and planned suburbs. Examples of the City Beautiful movement's works include the City of Chicago, the Columbia University campus, and the National Mall in Washington D.C.
After the fair closed, J.C. Rogers, a banker from Wamego, Kansas, purchased several pieces of art that had hung in the rotunda of the U.S. Government Building. He also purchased architectural elements, artifacts and buildings from the fair. He shipped his purchases to Wamego. Many of the items, including the artwork, were used to decorate his theater, now known as the Columbian Theatre.
Memorabilia saved by visitors can still be purchased. Numerous books, tokens, published photographs, and well-printed admission tickets can be found. While the higher value commemorative stamps are expensive, the lower ones are quite common. So too are the commemorative half dollars, many of which went into circulation.
Although not available for purchase, The George Washington University maintains a small collection of exposition tickets for viewing and research purposes. The collection is currently cared for by GWU's Special Collections Research Center, located in the Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library.[129]
When the exposition ended the Ferris Wheel was moved to Chicago's north side, next to an exclusive neighborhood. An unsuccessful Circuit Court action was filed against the owners of the wheel to have it moved. The wheel stayed there until it was moved to
The Columbian Exposition has celebrated many anniversaries since the fair in 1893. The Chicago Historical Society held an exhibition to commemorate the fair. The Grand Illusions exhibition was centered around the idea that the Columbian Exposition was made up of a series of illusions. The commemorative exhibition contained partial reconstructions, a video detailing the fair, and a catalogue similar to the one sold at the World's Fair of 1893.[130]
Academic views
Henry Adams wrote in his 1907 Education: “The Exposition denied philosophy ... [S]ince Noah’s Ark, no such Babel of loose and ill-jointed, such vague and ill-defined and unrelated thoughts and half-thoughts and experimental out-cries... had ruffled the surface of the Lakes.”[131]: 128
Michel-Rolph Trouillot wrote that the academic aspect of the event was not very important, even though the Harvard Peabody Museum, the Smithsonian Institution, and Franz Boas made contributions.[131]: 128
In popular culture
- The Exposition is portrayed in the 2017 historical film, The Current War, concerning the competition between George Westinghouse and Thomas Edison to establish the dominant form of electricity in the United States.
- 1893: A World's Fair Mystery, an interactive fiction by Peter Nepstad that recreates the Exposition in detail.
- Against the Day, a fictional novel that takes place during the Exposition during the first act.
- The Devil in the White City, a non-fiction book intertwining the true tales of the architect behind the Exposition and serial killer H. H. Holmes.
- Timebound, a time travel novel by Rysa Walker, culminates at the Exposition.
- Expo: Magic of the White City, a 2005 documentary film about the Exposition by Mark Bussler.
- Jimmy Corrigan, the Smartest Kid on Earth, a graphic novel set in part at the Exposition
- Wonder of the Worlds, an adventure novel where Nikola Tesla, Mark Twain, and Houdini pursue Martian agents who have stolen a powerful crystal from Tesla at the Exposition.
- The Will of an Eccentric, an adventure novel by Jules Verne. The Exposition is evoked with admiration in the early chapters.
- The Exposition appears in the season 1 episode "The World's Columbian Exposition" of the NBC series Timeless.
- The Exposition is referenced in Sufjan Stevens's song in his album Illinois, "Come On! Feel The Illinoise!", which consists of two parts. Part 1 is titled, "World's Columbian Exposition".
- The Exposition plays a role in the historical novel, Owen Glen, by Ben Ames Williams.
- Columbia was created at the Exposition and toured across the world to promote American exceptionalism.
- The exposition is a key setting of the novel The City Beautiful by Aden Polydoros.
- The exposition appears in the travel book by Aleko Konstantinov, To Chicago and Back.
- The young adult novel Fair Weather by Illinois native author Richard Peck takes thirteen-year-old Rosie Beckett and her family from their downstate family farm to the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago.
- The Dark Pictures Anthology: The Devil in Me, a 2022 video game which was inspired by H. H. Holmes murder castle.
- The Exposition appears in "Kang the Conqueror, whose help they need to save the multiverse.
- The Exposition also appears in the post-credits scene of the MCU film Ant-Man and the Wasp: Quantumania (2023), which uses footage from Loki despite being released before it.
See also
- Signal of Peace
- Kwanusila
- List of world expositions
- List of world's fairs
- Benjamin W. Kilburn, stereoscopic view concession
- H. H. Holmes, serial killer associated with the 1893 World's Fair
- St. John Cantius Church (Chicago), whose main altar, as well as its matching two side altars, reputedly originate from the 1893 Columbian Exposition
- Spectacle Reef Light
- World's Largest Stove
- World's Largest Cedar Bucket
- Fairy lamp, candle sets popularized at Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee were used to illuminate an island at the Expo
- St. Louis Autumnal Festival Association
Notes
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Bird's-Eye View of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893". World Digital Library. 1893. Archived from the original on October 14, 2013. Retrieved July 17, 2013.
- ^ "World's Columbian Exposition". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on July 13, 2017. Retrieved November 14, 2016.
- ^ ISBN 0-609-60844-4.
- ISBN 0-609-60844-4.
- ^ "Municipal Flag of Chicago". Chicago Public Library. 2009. Archived from the original on June 15, 2013. Retrieved March 4, 2009.
- ^ "Baker Has Resigned". Chicago Daily Tribune. August 19, 1892. p. 1.
- ^ Handy, Moses Purnell (1893). The Official Directory of the World's Columbian Exposition, May 1st to October 30th, 1893: A Reference Book of Exhibitors and Exhibits, and of the Officers and Members of the World's Columbian Commission Books of the Fairs. William B. Conkey Co. p. 75.
- ^ See also: Memorial Volume. Joint Committee on Ceremonies, Dedicatory And Opening Ceremonies of the World's Columbian Exposition: Historical and Descriptive, A. L. Stone: Chicago, 1893. p. 306.
- ^ a b ""World's Columbian Exposition", Encyclopedia of Chicago". Archived from the original on November 21, 2011. Retrieved November 14, 2011.
- ^ Lederer, F. (1972). Competition for the World's Columbian Exposition: The Chicago Campaign. Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, 65(4), 382–394
- ^ Congressional Record, Volume XXI, First Session 1664-1665
- ^ "World's Columbian Exposition: The Official Fair--A History". Archived from the original on November 9, 2011. Retrieved November 14, 2011.
- ^ ISBN 978-0226041391. Retrieved July 30, 2020.
- ^ see introduction of 2013 edition of Rydell, Robert W. All the world's a fair: Visions of empire at American international expositions, 1876–1916. University of Chicago Press, 2013.
- ^ Birgit Breugal for the EXPO2000 Hannover GmbH Hannover, the EXPO-BOOK The Official Catalogue of EXPO2000 with CDROM
- ISBN 0-226-73240-1.
- ^ Viele, Nico (November 4, 2015). "World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 comes alive on computer screens". UCLA. Retrieved August 31, 2020.
- ^ "Thursday". The Junction City Weekly Union. December 17, 1892. Retrieved January 10, 2017 – via Newspapers.com .
- ^ "To Urge Sunday Opening of the Fair". Chicago Daily Tribune. January 10, 1893. Retrieved January 10, 2017 – via Newspapers.com .
- ^ "Woman's Club Opposes Sunday Closing". Chicago Daily Tribune. December 11, 1892. Retrieved January 10, 2017 – via Newspapers.com .
- ^ Sawyers, June (October 9, 1988). "'HE DESERVED TO BE SHOT,' SAID THE MAYOR'S ASSASSIN". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved December 18, 2019.
- ^ "UChicago College Admissions". UChicago College Admissions. Retrieved December 18, 2019.
- ^ "midway". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d. Retrieved May 20, 2019.
- ^ Buel, James William. The Magic City: A Massive Portfolio of Original Photographic Views of the Great World's Fair, Historical Publishing Company, St. Louis MO, 1894 reprinted by Arno Press, NY, 1974
- ^ Carvajal, Carol Styles and Horwood, Jane. Concise Oxford Spanish Dictionary: Spanish-English/English-Spanish. Oxford Press, 2004, page 578.
- ^ Marling, Karal Ann (Autumn 1992). "Writing History with Artifacts: Columbus at the 1893 Chicago Fair" (PDF). The Public Historian, Imposing the Past on the Present: History, the Public, and the Columbus Quincentenary. 14 (4): 13–30. Retrieved April 16, 2023.
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- ^ Trumble White, William Iglehart, and George R. Davis, The World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago 1893 (1893), at 493
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Der Schritt von einer kurze 42-cm-Kanone L/33 zu einer Haubitze mit geringerer Anfangsgeschwindigkeit und einem um etwa 1/5 geringeren Geschossgewicht war nich sehr gross.
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- Museum of Science and Industry, Chicago, USA
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- ^ "Falmouth Museums on the Green" Archived 2009-01-23 at the Wayback Machine, Falmouth Historical Society
- ^ a b Petterchak 2003, pp. 17–18
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- ^ "Sisters And Brothers Of America". www.swamivivekanandaquotes.org. Archived from the original on October 22, 2016. Retrieved October 22, 2016.
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- ^ "Fan". Online Collections Database. Staten Island Historical Society. Archived from the original on September 16, 2017. Retrieved January 6, 2014.
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- ^ Knopf Doubleday, page 97
- ^ a b c Quentin R. Skrabec, George Westinghouse: Gentle Genius, pages 135-137
- ^ L. J. Davis (2012) Fleet Fire: Thomas Edison and the Pioneers of the Electric Revolution, Skyhorse Publishing, Chapter 8: The Manufacture and the Magus
- ^ "American Experience | Chicago: City of the Century | People & Events". PBS. Archived from the original on March 10, 2017. Retrieved September 18, 2017.
- ^ Marc Seifer (1996) Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla, page 1744
- ^ John Patrick Barret, Electricity at the Columbian Exposition, pages 165-170.
- ^ Hugo Gernsback, "Tesla's Egg of Columbus, How Tesla Performed the Feat of Columbus Without Cracking the Egg" Electrical Experimenter, March 19, 1919, p. 774 [1] Archived March 27, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Marc Seifer (1996) Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla, page 120
- ^ Thomas Commerford Martin, The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla: With Special Reference to His Work in Polyphase Currents and High Potential Lighting, Electrical Engineer - 1894, Chapter XLII, page 485 [2]
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- ^ Dommermuth-Costa, Carol. Nikola Tesla: A Spark of Genius. p. 90.
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- ^ a b Brittain, Randy Charles. "Festival Jubilate, Op. 17 by Amy Cheney Beach (1867–1944): A Performing Edition." Ph.D. Dissertation: University of North Carolina, Greensboro, 1994.
- ^ Program notes by Phillip Huscher for a performance by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra conducted by Riccardo Muti at the Krannert Center for the Performing Arts, Urbana, Ill. 24 September 2016. pp. 6–7.
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- ^ "Women's Building: 1893 World's Exposition". Women's Art at the World's Columbian Fair & Exposition, Chicago 1893. Archived from the original on October 10, 2014. Retrieved November 9, 2014.
- ^ "United States Women Painters: 1893 Exposition – page 4". Women's Art at the World's Columbian Fair & Exposition, Chicago 1893. Archived from the original on November 9, 2014. Retrieved November 9, 2014.
- ^ "United States Women Painters: 1893 Exposition, page 8". Women's Art at the World's Columbian Fair & Exposition, Chicago 1893. Archived from the original on November 9, 2014. Retrieved November 9, 2014.
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It was known as the "Greatest Refrigerator on Earth," and was estimated to be 130 by 255 feet. The lower level provided cold storage for the thousands of pounds of food served every day at the fair; while the upper story featured an ice skating rink for fair patrons.
- ^ Connolly, Colleen (July 28, 2018). "Tragedy at the 1893 World's Fair: Fire killed 16 while crowds watched". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved April 12, 2022.
"In a funeral pyre … imprisoned by flames," read the headline of a front-page story of the Chicago Daily Tribune on July 11, 1893. A day earlier, 16 people, including 12 firefighters, had died in a blaze at one of the buildings in Jackson Park during the World's Columbian Exposition. It was the fair's first tragedy, and it was witnessed by thousands of fairgoers.
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References
- The project documenting The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 – Website main page, About the project
- Crawford, Richard (2001). America's Musical Life: A History. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04810-1.
- Earle, Joe (1999). Splendors of Meiji : treasures of imperial Japan : masterpieces from the Khalili Collection. St. Petersburg, Fla.: Broughton International Inc. OCLC 42476594.
- Southern, Eileen (1997). Music of Black Americans. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-03843-2.
- Petterchak, Janice A. (2003). Lone Scout: W. D. Boyce and American Boy Scouting. Rochester, Illinois: Legacy Press. ISBN 0-9653198-7-3.
- Neuberger, Mary. 2006. "To Chicago and Back: Alecko Konstantinov, Rose Oil, and the Smell of Modernity" in Slavic Review, Fall 2006.
- Larson, Erik. The Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic, and Madness at the Fair That Changed America. New York: Vintage Books a Division of Random House, Inc., 2003.
- Ramsland, Katherine. “H. H. Holmes: Master of Illusion”. crime library. 2014. October 1, 2014. Archived December 4, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
- Redman, Samuel J. Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 2016.
- Placko, Dane. “Chilling Tour inside Serial Killer H. H. Holmes’ ‘Murder Castle’”. My Fox Chicago. Apr. 28, 2014. Oct 2, 2014.
- French, Leanne; Grimm, Laura; Pak, Eudie. “H. H. Holmes Biography”. Biography. 2014. October 1, 2014.
- French, Leanne; Grimm, Laura; Pak, Eudie. H. H. Holmes – The World Fair. Television clip. Biography. 2014. A&E Television Networks, LLC, 2014. Video from biography.com.
- French, Leanne; Grimm, Laura; Pak, Eudie. H. H. Holmes – Chicago Expansion. Television clip. Biography. 2014. A&E Television Networks, LLC, 2014. Video from biography.com.
- French, Leanne; Grimm, Laura; Pak, Eudie. H. H. Holmes – Finding the Victims. Television Clip. Biography. 2014. A&E Television Networks, LLC, 2014. Video from biography.com.
- French, Leanne; Grimm, Laura; Pak, Eudie. H. H. Holmes – Full Biography. Television clip. Biography. 2014. A&E Television Networks, LLC, 2014. Video from biography.com.
Further reading
- Appelbaum, Stanley (1980). The Chicago World's Fair of 1893. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-23990-X
- Arnold, C.D. Portfolio of Views: The World's Columbian Exposition. National Chemigraph Company, Chicago & St. Louis, 1893.
- Bancroft, Hubert Howe. The Book of the Fair: An Historical and Descriptive Presentation of the World's Science, Art and Industry, As Viewed through the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893. New York: Bounty, 1894.
- Barrett, John Patrick, Electricity at the Columbian Exposition. R.R. Donnelley, 1894.
- Beck, David (2019). Unfair Labor? American Indians and the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. OCLC 1100071235.
- Bertuca, David, ed. World's Columbian Exposition: A Centennial Bibliographic Guide. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996. ISBN 0-313-26644-1
- Buel, James William. The Magic City. New York: Arno Press, 1974. ISBN 0-405-06364-4
- Burg, David F. Chicago's White City of 1893. Lexington, KY: The ISBN 0-8131-0140-9
- Corn, Wanda M. Women Building History: Public Art at the 1893 Columbian Exposition. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2011.
- Dybwad, G. L., and Joy V. Bliss, Annotated Bibliography: World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago 1893. Book Stops Here, 1992. ISBN 0-9631612-0-2
- Eagle, Mary Kavanaugh Oldham, d. 1903, ed. The Congress of Women: Held in the Woman's Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, U. S. A., 1893, With Portraits, Biographies and Addresses. Chicago: Monarch Book Company, 1894.
- Elliott, Maud Howe, 1854–1948, ed. Art and Handicraft in the Woman's Building of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. Chicago and New York: Rand, McNally and Co., 1894.
- Green, Christopher T. "A Stage Set for Assimilation: The Model Indian School at the World’s Columbian Exposition". Winterthur Portfolio. Volume 51, Number 2/3 (Summer/Autumn 2017).
- Glimpses of the World's Fair: A Selection of Gems of the White City Seen Through A Camera, Laird & Lee Publishers, Chicago: 1893, accessed February 13, 2009.
- International Congress of Mathematicians, Mathematical papers read at the International Mathematical Congress : held in connection with the World's Columbian exposition, Chicago, 1893 (1st : 1893 : Chicago, Ill.).
- Jaegerová, Anna. Ideals of Authenticity: Euro-American Sculptural Representations of Native Americans at the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893. Diploma thesis. July 8, 2021. Masaryk University, Faculty of Arts.
- ISBN 0-375-72560-1.
- Ormos, István: Cairo in Chicago : Cairo street at the world's Columbian exposition of 1893, Le Caire : Institut Francais d'Archéologie Orientale (IFAO), 2021; ISBN 978-2-7247-0766-3
- Photographs of the World's Fair: an elaborate collection of photographs of the buildings, grounds and exhibits of the World's Columbian Exposition with a special description of The Famous Midway Plaisance. Chicago: Werner, 1894.
- Peck, Richard, Fair Weather, an adventure novel about a 13-year-old being away from home for the first time and visiting the fair.
- Reed, Christopher Robert. "All the World Is Here!" The Black Presence at White City. Bloomington: ISBN 0-253-21535-8
- Rydell, Robert, and Carolyn Kinder Carr, eds. Revisiting the White City: American Art at the 1893 World's Fair. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1993. ISBN 0-937311-02-2
- ISBN 0-252-06784-3
- World's Columbian Exposition (1893 : Chicago, Ill.). Board of Lady Managers. List of Books Sent by Home and Foreign Committees to the Library of the Woman's Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 by World's Columbian Exposition (1893 : Chicago, Ill.). Board of Lady Managers; edited by Edith E. Clarke. Chicago: n. pub., ca. 1894. A bibliography.
- Yandell, Enid. Three Girls in a Flat by Enid Yandell, Jean Loughborough and Laura Hayes. Chicago: Bright, Leonard and Co., 1892. Biographical account of women at the fair.
External links
- Expo 1893 Chicago at Bureau International des Expositions
- The 1893 World's Fair in Chicago (worldsfairchicago1893.com). A standalone website that covers all aspects of the Exposition
- Chicago 1893 is a media project about the Exposition which includes a book, film, and augmented reality
- The Columbian Exposition in American culture.
- Photographs of the 1893 Columbian Exposition Archived August 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- Interactive map of Columbian Exposition
- The Story of the Columbian Expo Battleship Illinois Bell
- President Benjamin Harrison: Celebrating the 400th Anniversary of the Discovery of America[permanent dead link] Shapell Manuscript Foundation
- The 1893 World's Columbian Exposition Reading Room.
- Robert N. Dennis Collection of Stereoscopic Views: Exhibitions 1893. Search results, at New York Public Library Digital Collections
- The Winterthur Library Overview of an archival collection on the World's Columbian Exposition.
- Columbian Theatre History and information about artwork from the U.S. Government Building.
- Photographs and interactive map from the 1893 Columbian Exposition from the University of Chicago
- Video simulations from the 1893 Columbian Exposition from UCLA's Urban Simulation Team Archived August 12, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
- 1893 Columbian Exposition Concerts
- Edgar Rice Burroughs' Amazing Summer of '93 – Columbian Exposition
- International Eisteddfod chair, Chicago, 1893
- Photographs of the Exposition from the Hagley Digital Archives
- Map of Chicago Columbian Exposition from the American Geographical Society Library
- Interactive Map of the Chicago Columbian Exposition, created in the Harvard Worldmap Platform
- President Harrison: Worlds Columbian Exposition[permanent dead link] Shapell Manuscript Foundation
- Guide to the World's Columbian Exposition Ticket Collection, 1893, Special Collections Research Center, Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library, The George Washington University Archived October 30, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
- Guide to World's Columbian Exposition resources at Field Museum Library
- Guide to the World's Columbian Exposition Records 1891–1930 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center