Hugo Grotius
Hugo Grotius | |
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just war principles in natural law, governmental theory of atonement | |
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Hugo Grotius (
Grotius was a major figure in the fields of philosophy,
Peter Borschberg suggests that Grotius was significantly influenced by
After fading over time, the influence of Grotius's ideas revived in the 20th century following the
Early life
Born in Delft during the Dutch Revolt, Grotius was the first child of Jan Cornets de Groot and Alida van Overschie. His father was a man of learning, once having studied with the eminent Justus Lipsius at Leiden University,[8] as well as of political distinction. His family was considered Delft patrician as his ancestors played an important role in local government since the 13th century.[9]
Jan de Groot was also translator of
In 1598, at the age of 15 years, he accompanied
His first occasion to write systematically on issues of international justice came in 1604, when he became involved in the legal proceedings following the seizure by Dutch merchants of a Portuguese carrack and its cargo in the Singapore Strait.[citation needed] Throughout his life Grotius wrote a variety of philological, theological and politico-theological works.
In 1608, he married Maria van Reigersberch; they had three daughters and four sons.[14]
Jurist career
The Dutch were at
Not only was the legality of keeping the
The result of Grotius' efforts in 1604/05 was a long, theory-laden treatise that he provisionally entitled De Indis (On the Indies). Grotius sought to ground his defense of the seizure in terms of the natural principles of justice. In this, he had cast a net much wider than the case at hand; his interest was in the source and ground of war's lawfulness in general. The treatise was never published in full during Grotius' lifetime, perhaps because the court ruling in favor of the Company preempted the need to garner public support.[citation needed]
In The Free Sea (Mare Liberum, published 1609) Grotius formulated the new principle that the sea was international territory and all nations were free to use it for seafaring trade.[20] Grotius, by claiming 'free seas' (freedom of the seas), provided suitable ideological justification for the Dutch breaking up of various trade monopolies through its formidable naval power. England, competing fiercely with the Dutch for domination of world trade, opposed this idea and claimed in John Selden's Mare clausum (The Closed Sea), "That the Dominion of the British Sea, or That Which Incompasseth the Isle of Great Britain, is, and Ever Hath Been, a Part or Appendant of the Empire of that Island."[21]
It is generally assumed that Grotius first propounded the principle of
Arminian controversy, arrest and exile
Aided by his continued association with
In these years a great
Leiden University "was under the authority of the States of Holland – they were responsible, among other things, for the policy concerning appointments at this institution, which was governed in their name by a board of Curators – and, in the final instance, the States were responsible for dealing with any cases of heterodoxy among the professors."[25] The domestic dissension resulting over Arminius' professorship was overshadowed by the continuing war with Spain, and the professor died in 1609 on the eve of the Twelve Years' Truce. The new peace would move the people's focus to the controversy and Arminius' followers.[citation needed] Grotius played a decisive part in this politico-religious conflict between the Remonstrants, supporters of religious tolerance, and the orthodox Calvinists or Counter-Remonstrants.[24]
Controversy within Dutch Protestantism
The controversy expanded when the Remonstrant theologian
Grotius joined the controversy by defending the civil authorities' power to appoint (independently of the wishes of religious authorities) whomever they wished to a university's faculty. He did this by writing
The work is twenty-seven pages long, is "polemical and acrimonious" and only two-thirds of it speaks directly about ecclesiastical politics (mainly of synods and offices).[27] The work met with a violent reaction from the Counter-Remonstrants, and "It might be said that all Grotius' next works until his arrest in 1618 form a vain attempt to repair the damage done by this book."[27] Grotius would later write De Satisfactione aiming "at proving that the Arminians are far from being Socinians".[27]
Edict of toleration
Led by Oldenbarnevelt, the
The edict "imposing moderation and toleration on the ministry", was backed up by Grotius with "thirty-one pages of quotations, mainly dealing with the Five Remonstrant Articles."[27] In response to Grotius' Ordinum Pietas, Professor Lubbertus published Responsio Ad Pietatem Hugonis Grotii in 1614. Later that year Grotius anonymously published Bona Fides Sibrandi Lubberti in response to Lubbertus.[27]
Jacobus Trigland joined Lubberdus in expressing the view that tolerance in matters of doctrine was inadmissible, and in his 1615 works Den Recht-gematigden Christen: Ofte vande waere Moderatie and Advys Over een Concept van moderatie[30] Trigland denounced Grotius' stance.
In late 1615, when Middelburg professor Antonius Walaeus published Het Ampt der Kerckendienaren (a response to Johannes Wtenbogaert's 1610 Tractaet van 't Ampt ende authoriteit eener hoogher Christelijcke overheid in kerckelijkcke zaken) he sent Grotius a copy out of friendship. This was a work "on the relationship between ecclesiastical and secular government" from the moderate counter-remonstrant viewpoint.[27] In early 1616 Grotius also received the 36 page letter championing a remonstrant view Dissertatio epistolica de Iure magistratus in rebus ecclesiasticis from his friend Gerardus Vossius.[27]
The letter was "a general introduction on (in)tolerance, mainly on the subject of predestination and the sacrament...[and] an extensive, detailed and generally unfavourable review of Walaeus' Ampt, stuffed with references to ancient and modern authorities."[27] When Grotius wrote asking for some notes "he received a treasure-house of ecclesiastical history. ...offering ammunition to Grotius, who gratefully accepted it".[27] Around this time (April 1616) Grotius went to Amsterdam as part of his official duties, trying to persuade the civil authorities there to join Holland's majority view about church politics.
In early 1617 Grotius debated the question of giving counter-remonstrants the chance to preach in the Kloosterkerk in The Hague which had been closed. During this time lawsuits were brought against the States of Holland by counter-remonstrant ministers and riots over the controversy broke out in Amsterdam.
Arrest and exile
As the conflict between civil and religious authorities escalated, in order to maintain civil order Oldenbarnevelt eventually proposed that local authorities be given the power to raise troops (the
The conflict between Maurice and the States of Holland, led by Oldenbarnevelt and Grotius, about the Sharp Resolution and Holland's refusal to allow a National Synod, came to a head in July 1619 when a majority in the States General authorized Maurice to disband the auxiliary troops in Utrecht. Grotius went on a mission to the States of Utrecht to stiffen their resistance against this move, but Maurice prevailed. The States General then authorized him to arrest Oldenbarnevelt, Grotius and Rombout Hogerbeets on 29 August 1618. They were tried by a court of delegated judges from the States General. Van Oldenbarnevelt was sentenced to death and was beheaded in 1619. Grotius was sentenced to life imprisonment and transferred to Loevestein Castle.[31]
From his imprisonment in Loevestein, Grotius made a written justification of his position "as to my views on the power of the Christian [civil] authorities in ecclesiastical matters, I refer to my...booklet De Pietate Ordinum Hollandiae and especially to an unpublished book De Imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra, where I have treated the matter in more detail...I may summarize my feelings thus: that the [civil] authorities should scrutinize God's Word so thoroughly as to be certain to impose nothing which is against it; if they act in this way, they shall in good conscience have control of the public churches and public worship – but without persecuting those who err from the right way."[27] Because this stripped Church officials of any power some of their members (such as Johannes Althusius in a letter to Lubbertus) declared Grotius' ideas diabolical.[27]
In 1621, with the help of his wife and his maidservant,
Life in Paris
Grotius then fled to
While in Paris, Grotius set about rendering into Latin prose a work which he had originally written as Dutch verse in prison, providing rudimentary yet systematic arguments for the truth of Christianity. The Dutch poem, Bewijs van den waren Godsdienst, was published in 1622, the Latin treatise in 1627, under the title De veritate religionis Christianae.
In 1631 he tried to return to Holland, but the authorities remained hostile to him. He moved to Hamburg in 1632. But as early as 1634, the Swedes - a European superpower - sent him to Paris as ambassador. He remained ten years in this position where he had the mission to negotiate for Sweden the end of the
Governmental theory of atonement
Grotius also developed a particular view of the
De Jure Belli ac Pacis
Living in the times of the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands and the Thirty Years' War between Catholic and Protestant European nations (Catholic France being in the otherwise Protestant camp), it is not surprising that Grotius was deeply concerned with matters of conflicts between nations and religions. His most lasting work, begun in prison and published during his exile in Paris, was a monumental effort to restrain such conflicts on the basis of a broad moral consensus. Grotius wrote:
Fully convinced...that there is a common law among nations, which is valid alike for war and in war, I have had many and weighty reasons for undertaking to write upon the subject. Throughout the Christian world I observed a lack of restraint in relation to war, such as even barbarous races should be ashamed of; I observed that men rush to arms for slight causes, or no cause at all, and that when arms have once been taken up there is no longer any respect for law, divine or human; it is as if, in accordance with a general decree, frenzy had openly been let loose for the committing of all crimes.[35]
- Book I advances his conception of war and of natural justice, arguing that there are some circumstances in which war is justifiable.
- Book II identifies three 'just causes' for war: reparation of injury, and punishment; Grotius considers a wide variety of circumstances under which these rights of war attach and when they do not.
- Book III takes up the question of what rules govern the conduct of war once it has begun; influentially, Grotius argued that all parties to war are bound by such rules, whether their cause is just or not.
- Further information: Temperamenta belli
Natural law
Grotius' concept of natural law had a strong impact on the philosophical and theological debates and political developments of the 17th and 18th centuries. Among those he influenced were
Later years
Many exiled Remonstrants began to return to the Netherlands after the death of Prince Maurice in 1625 when toleration was granted to them. In 1630 they were allowed complete freedom to build and run churches and schools and to live anywhere in Holland. The Remonstrants guided by
In 1634 Grotius was given the opportunity to serve as Sweden's ambassador to France. Axel Oxenstierna, regent of the successor of the recently deceased Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus, was keen to have Grotius in his employ. Grotius accepted the offer and took up diplomatic residence in Paris, which remained his home until he was released from his post in 1645.[citation needed]
In 1644, the queen
While departing from his last visit to Sweden, Grotius was shipwrecked on the voyage. He washed up on the shore of Rostock, ill and weather-beaten, and on August 28, 1645, he died; his body at last returned to the country of his youth, being laid to rest in the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft.[39][40]
Personal life
Grotius' personal motto was Ruit hora ("Time is running away"); his last words were purportedly, "By understanding many things, I have accomplished nothing" (Door veel te begrijpen, heb ik niets bereikt).
Grotius was the father of regent and diplomat Pieter de Groot.
Influence of Grotius
Grotius designed his theory to apply not only to states but also to rulers and subjects of law in general. Grotius's masterpiece De Jure Belli ac Pacis thus proved useful in the later development of theories of both private and criminal law.[43]
From his time to the end of the 17th century
The king of Sweden,
Some philosophers, notably Protestants such as
Commentaries of the 18th century
Andrew Dickson White wrote:
Into the very midst of all this welter of evil, at a point in time to all appearance hopeless, at a point in space apparently defenseless, in a nation of which every man, woman, and child was under sentence of death from its sovereign, was born a man who wrought as no other has ever done for a redemption of civilization from the main cause of all that misery; who thought out for Europe the precepts of right reason in international law; who made them heard; who gave a noble change to the course of human affairs; whose thoughts, reasonings, suggestions, and appeals produced an environment in which came an evolution of humanity that still continues.[45]
In contrast,
Regain of interest in the 20th century
The influence of Grotius declined following the rise of positivism in the field of international law and the decline of the natural law in philosophy.[47] The Carnegie Foundation has nevertheless re-issued and re-translated On the Law of War and Peace after the World War I.[48] At the end of the 20th century, his work aroused renewed interest as a controversy over the originality of his ethical work developed. For Irwing, Grotius would only repeat the contributions of Thomas Aquinas and Francisco Suárez.[49] On the contrary, Schneewind argues that Grotius introduced the idea that "the conflict can not be eradicated and could not be dismissed, even in principle, by the most comprehensive metaphysical knowledge possible of how the world is made up".[50][44]
As far as politics is concerned, Grotius is most often considered not so much as having brought new ideas, but rather as one who has introduced a new way of approaching political problems. For Kingsbury and Roberts, "the most important direct contribution of ["On the Law of War and Peace"] lies in the way it systematically brings together practices and authorities on the traditional but fundamental subject of jus belli, which he organizes for the first time from a body of principles rooted in the law of nature".[51][52]
Bibliography (selection)
The Peace Palace Library in The Hague holds the Grotius Collection, which has a large number of books by and about Grotius. The collection was based on a donation from Martinus Nijhoff of 55 editions of De jure belli ac pacis libri tres.
Works are listed in order of publication, with the exception of works published posthumously or after long delay (estimated composition dates are given).[53][54] Where an English translation is available, the most recently published translation is listed beneath the title.
- Martiani Minei Felicis Capellæ Carthaginiensis viri proconsularis Satyricon, in quo De nuptiis Philologiæ & Mercurij libri duo, & De septem artibus liberalibus libri singulares. Omnes, & emendati, & Notis, siue Februis Hug. Grotii illustrati [The Satyricon by Martianus Minneus Felix Capella, a man from Carthage, which includes the two books of 'On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury', and the book named 'On the Seven Liberal Arts'. Everything, including corrections, annotations as well as deletions and illustrations by Hug. Grotius] - 1599
- Adamus exul (The Exile of Adam; tragedy) – The Hague, 1601
- De republica emendanda (To Improve the Dutch Republic; manuscript 1601) – pub. The Hague, 1984
- Parallelon rerumpublicarum (Comparison of Constitutions; manuscript 1601–02) – pub. Haarlem 1801–03
- De Indis (On the Indies; manuscript 1604–05) – pub. 1868 as De Jure Praedae
- Christus patiens (The Passion of Christ; tragedy) – Leiden, 1608
- Mare Liberum (The Free Seas; from chapter 12 of De Indis) – Leiden, 1609
- De antiquitate reipublicae Batavicae (On the Antiquity of the Batavian Republic) – Leiden, 1610 (An extension of François Vranck's Deduction of 1587[55])
- The Antiquity of the Batavian Republic, ed. Jan Waszink and others (van Gorcum, 2000).
- Meletius (manuscript 1611) – pub. Leiden, 1988
- Meletius, ed. G.H.M. Posthumus Meyjes (Brill, 1988).
- Annales et Historiae de rebus Belgicis (Annals and History of the Low Countries' War; manuscript 1612-13) – pub. Amsterdam, 1657
- The Annals and History of the Low-Countrey-warrs, ed. Thomas Manley (London, 1665):
- - Modern English translation of the Annales only in: Hugo Grotius, Annals of the War in the Low Countries, ed. with introduction by J. Waszink (Latin/English edition), Leuven UP 2023. Bibliotheca Latinitatis Novae, ISBN 978 94 6270 351 3 / eISBN 978 94 6166 485 3, .
- - Modern Dutch translation of the Annales only in: Hugo de Groot, "Kroniek van de Nederlandse Oorlog. De Opstand 1559-1588", ed. Jan Waszink (Nijmegen, Vantilt 2014), with introduction, index, plates.
- Ordinum Hollandiae ac Westfrisiae pietas (The Piety of the States of Holland and Westfriesland) – Leiden, 1613
- Ordinum Hollandiae ac Westfrisiae pietas, ed. Edwin Rabbie (Brill, 1995).
- De imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra (On the power of sovereigns concerning religious affairs; manuscript 1614–17) – pub. Paris, 1647
- De imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra, ed. Harm-Jan van Dam (Brill, 2001).
- De satisfactione Christi adversus Faustum Socinum (On the satisfaction of Christ against [the doctrines of] Faustus Socinus) – Leiden, 1617
- Defensio fidei catholicae de satisfactione Christi, ed. Edwin Rabbie (van Gorcum, 1990).
- Grotius, Hugo (1889). A defence of the Catholic faith concerning the satisfaction of Christ against Faustus Socinus (PDF). Andover, MA: W. F. Draper.
- Inleydinge tot de Hollantsche rechtsgeleertheit (Introduction to Dutch Jurisprudence; written in Loevenstein) – pub. The Hague, 1631
- The Jurisprudence of Holland, ed. R.W. Lee (Oxford, 1926).
- Bewijs van den waaren godsdienst (Proof of the True Religion; didactic poem) – Rotterdam, 1622
- Apologeticus (Defense of the actions which led to his arrest (This was for a long time the only source for what transpired during Grotius' trial in 1619, because the trial record was not published at the time. However, Robert Fruin edited this trial record in[56]) – Paris, 1922
- De jure belli ac pacis (On the Law of War and Peace) – Paris, 1625 (2nd ed. Amsterdam 1631)
- Hugo Grotius: On the Law of War and Peace. Student edn. Ed. Stephen C. Neff (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012)
- De veritate religionis Christianae (On the Truth of the Christian religion) – Paris, 1627
- The Truth of the Christian Religion, ed. John Clarke (Edinburgh, 1819).
- Sophompaneas (Joseph; tragedy) – Amsterdam, 1635
- De origine gentium Americanarum dissertatio (Dissertation of the origin of the American peoples) – Paris 1642
- Via ad pacem ecclesiasticam (The way to religious peace) – Paris, 1642
- Annotationes in Vetus Testamentum (Commentaries on the Old Testament) – Amsterdam, 1644
- Annotationes in Novum Testamentum (Commentaries on the New Testament) – Amsterdam and Paris, 1641–50
- De fato (On Destiny) – Paris, 1648
See also
- Coenraad van Beuningen
- Emer de Vattel
- English school of international relations theory
- International waters
- Grotius Lectures
- 9994 Grotius - an asteroid named after Grotius
References
- Prof. dr hab. Edmund Kotarski, "Andrzej FRYCZ Modrzewski (Fricius Modrevius)" with bibliography.Virtual Library of Polish Literature. Retrieved September 28, 2011.
- S2CID 146226931.
- ^ Howell A. Lloyd, Jean Bodin, Oxford University Press, 2017, p. 36.
- ^ a b "Hugo Grotius | Dutch statesman and scholar | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
- ISBN 978-9971-69-467-8
- ^ Bull, Roberts & Kingsbury 2003.
- ^ Thumfart 2009.
- ISBN 978-90-04-27436-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-17513-6.
- ISBN 978-1-317-30711-2.
- ^ Vreeland 1917, chap 1.
- ^ Stahl 1965.
- ^ von Siebold 1847.
- ^ a b c Miller 2014, p. 2.
- ISBN 978-1-59267-113-7.
- ^ "Hugo Grotius | Dutch statesman and scholar | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 21 April 2023. and: J. Waszink, ‘Tacitism in Holland: Hugo Grotius' Annales et Historiae de rebus Belgicis’ in Rhoda Schnur (ed.), Acta Conventus Neo-Latini Bonnensis: Proceedings of the 12th International Congress of Neo-Latin Studies (Bonn 2003). Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies vol. 315, 2006
- S2CID 251530133.
- ^ "The Santa Catarina Incident". The National Library Board, Government of Singapore. 2021. Retrieved 1 April 2021.
[The Santa Catarina] was taken under the laws of war by Dutch Admiral Jacob van Heemskerk
- ^ a b van Ittersum 2006, Chap. 1.
- ^ Kraska 2011, p. 88.
- ^ Selden 1652.
- ^ Nussbaum 1947.
- ^ Vreeland 1917, chap 3.
- ^ a b c Miller 2014, p. 3.
- ^ Grotius & Rabbie 1995.
- ^ Nijenhuis 1972.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Van Dam 1994.
- ^ Vreeland 1917, AppendixA translation edict is printed in full in the appendix
- ^ See his manuscript for Meletius (1611) and the more systematic De imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra (finished 1617, published 1647)
- ^ Grotius & Blom 2009.
- ^ Israel 1995.
- ^ Slot Loevestein 2019.
- ^ Miller 2014, p. 4.
- ^ Tooley 2013, p. 184.
- ^ Grotius & Kelsey 1925.
- ^ Waldron 2002.
- ^ Wolf 1986.
- ^ Elze 1958.
- ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 07 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 954.
- ^ Spuyman, Ceren (10 December 2019). "Hugo de Groot: one of the greatest Dutch thinkers of all time". DutchReview. Retrieved 28 August 2020.
- ^ Miller 2014. While they are probably apocryphal, his supposed last words—“By attempting many things, I have accomplished nothing”—do evoke the span of his life's work and his personal assessment of the results.
- ^ H.M. 1988, note 67.
- ^ "Hugo Grotius - Later life | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
- ^ a b c d e Miller 2014, p. 25.
- ^ White 1910.
- ^ Heinlein 1958, p. 324.
- ^ Forde 1998, p. 639.
- ^ Acton Institute 2010.
- ^ Irving 2008.
- ^ Schneewind 1993.
- ^ Bull, Roberts & Kingsbury 2003, Introduction.
- ^ Miller 2014, p. 24.
- ^ Peace Palace (The Hague) 1983.
- ^ van Bunge 2017.
- ^ Leeb 1973.
- ^ Fruin 1871.
Sources
- Acton Institute (2010). "Hugo Grotius". Religion & Liberty. 9 (6).
- Bull, Hedley; Roberts, Adam; Kingsbury, Benedict (2003). Hugo Grotius and International Relations. Oxford: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-19-825569-7.
- Elze, M. (1958). "Grotius, Hugo". Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (in German). 3. Tübingen (Germany): Mohr.
- Forde, Steven (1998). "Hugo Grotius on Ethics and War". The American Political Science Review. 92 (3): 639–648. S2CID 143831729.
- Fruin, R. (1871). "Verhooren en andere bescheiden betreffende het rechtsgeding van Hugo de Groot". Google Books (in Dutch). Kemink en Zn. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
- Grotius, Hugo; Kelsey, Francis W. (1925). The Law of War and Peace. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington.
- Grotius, Hugo; Rabbie, Edwin (1995). Hugo Grotius: Ordinum Hollandiae ac Westfrisiae Pietas, 1613. New York: Brill.
- Grotius, Hugo; Blom, Hans W. (2009). Property, Piracy and Punishment: Hugo Grotius on War and Booty in De Iure Praedae – Concepts and Contexts. Leiden: Brill.
- Heinlein, Guillaume (1988). Hugo Grotius, Meletius sive De iis quae inter Christianos conveniunt Epistola: Critical Edition with Translation, Commentary and Introduction. Brill. p. 33.
- Heinlein, Robert A. (1958). Revolt in 2100 & Methuselah's Children. Riverdale, New York: Baen.
- Irving, Terence (2008). The Development of Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Israel, Jonathan (1995). The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 447–449. ISBN 0-19-873072-1.
- Kraska, James (June 2011). Contemporary Maritime Piracy: International Law, Strategy, and Diplomacy at Sea: International Law, Strategy, and Diplomacy at Sea. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313387258.
- Leeb, I. Leonard (1973). Ideological Origins of the Batavian Revolution: History and Politics in the Dutch Republic, 1747–1800. Springer. pp. 21ff, 89.
- Miller, John (2014). "Hugo Grotius". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford: Stanford University.
- Nellen, Henk (January 2012). "Minimal Religion, Deism, and Socinianism: On Grotius's Motives for Writing De Veritate". Grotiana. 33 (1). ISSN 0167-3831.
- Nijenhuis, Willem (1972). Ecclesia reformata: Studies on the Reformation. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.
- Nussbaum, Arthur (1947). A concise history of the law of nations (1st ed.). New York: Macmillan Co. p. 62.
- Palladini, Fiammetta (January 2012). "The Image of Christ in Grotius's De Veritate Religionis Christianae: Some Thoughts on Grotius's Socinianism". Grotiana. 33 (1). ISSN 0167-3831.
- Peace Palace (The Hague) (1983). Catalogue of the Grotius Collection. Assen: Van Gorcum.
- Schneewind, J.B. (1993). "Kant and natural law ethics". Ethics, vol.104:53-74.
- Selden, John (1652). Mare Clausum. Of the Dominion, or, Ownership of the Sea. London: Printed by William Du-Gard, by appointment of the Council of State and sold at the Sign of the Ship at the New Exchange.
- Slot Loevestein (2019). "Hugo de Groot - Slot Loevestein". Slot Loevestein (in Dutch). Retrieved 28 November 2019.
- Stahl, William H. (1965). "To a Better Understanding of Martianus Capella". Speculum. 40 (1): 102–115. S2CID 161708230.
- Thumfart, Johannes (2009). "On Grotius's Mare liberum and Vitoria's de indis, following Agamben and Schmitt". Grotiana. 30 (1): 65–87. .
- Tooley, W. Andrew (2013). Reinventing Redemption: The Methodist Doctrine of Atonement in Britain and America in the Long Nineteenth Century (PDF) (Phd thesis). Stirling: University of Stirling.
- van Bunge, Wiep (2017). "Grotius, Hugo". Dictionary of Seventeenth Century Dutch Philosophers. England: Bloomsbury.
- Van Dam, Harm-Jan (1994). "De Imperio Summarum Potestatum Circa Sacra". In Henk J.M. Nellen & Edwin Rabbie (ed.). Hugo Grotius Theologian – Essays in Honor of G.H.M. Posthumus Meyjes. New York: E.J. Brill.
- van Ittersum, Martine Julia (2006). Hugo Grotius, Natural Rights Theories and the Rise of Dutch Power in the East Indies 1595–1615. Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-14979-3.
- Waldron, Jeremy (2002). God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. pp. 189, 208. ISBN 978-0-521-89057-1.
- von Siebold, Philipp Franz (1847). "Nécrologie de Jhr. Hugo Cornets de Groot". Le Moniteur des Indes-Orientales et Occidentales (in French). 3: 3.
- Vreeland, Hamilton (1917). Hugo Grotius: The Father of the Modern Science of International Law. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8377-2702-8. Retrieved 16 February 2019 – via Internet Archive.
- White, Andrew Dickson (1910). Seven great Statesmen in the warfare of humanity with unreason By Andrew Dickson White. New York: Century Co.
- Wolf, Ernst (1986). "Naturrecht". Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (in German). 3. Tübingen (Germany): Mohr.
Further reading
See Catalogue of the Grotius Collection (Peace Palace Library, The Hague) and 'Grotius, Hugo' in Dictionary of Seventeenth Century Dutch Philosophers (Thoemmes Press 2003).
- Alvarado, Ruben (2018). The Debate That Changed the West: Grotius versus Althusius. Aalten: Pantocrator Press. OCLC 1060613096.
- Bayle, Pierre. (1720). "Grotius", in Dictionaire historique et critique, 3rd ed. (Rotterdam: Michel Bohm).
- Bell, Jordy: Hugo Grotius: Historian. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, 1980
- Blom, Andrew (2016). "Hugo Grotius". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
- Blom, H. W.; Winkel, L. C.: Grotius and the Stoa. Van Gorcum Ltd, 2004, 332pp
- Borschberg, Peter, 2011, Hugo Grotius, the Portuguese and Free Trade in the East Indies, Singapore and Leiden: Singapore University Press and KITLV Press.
- Brandt, Reinhard: Eigentumstheorien von Grotius bis Kant (Problemata). Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog, 1974, 275pp
- Brett, Annabel (2 April 2002). "Natural Right and Civil Community: The Civil Philosophy of Hugo Grotius". The Historical Journal. 45 (1): 31–51. S2CID 159489997.
- Buckle, Stephen: Natural Law and the Theory of Property: Grotius to Hume. Oxford University Press, USA, 1993, 344pp
- Burigny, Jean Lévesque de: The Life of the Truly Eminent and Learned Hugo Grotius: Containing a Copious and Circumstantial History of the Several Important and Honourable Negotiations in Which He was Employed; Together with a Critical Account of His Works. London: printed for A. Millar, 1754. Also Echo Library, 2006.
- Butler, Charles: The Life of Hugo Grotius: With Brief Minutes of the Civil, Ecclesiastical, and Literary History of the Netherlands. London: John Murray, 1826.
- Chappell, Vere: Grotius to Gassendi (Essays on Early Modern Philosophers). Garland Publishing Inc, New York, 1992, 302pp
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External links
Collections
- Works by Hugo Grotius at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Hugo Grotius at Internet Archive
- Works by Hugo Grotius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Works by Hugo Grotius at Post-Reformation Digital Library
- Works by Hugo Grotius in Short Title Catalogue Netherlands (STCN)
Individual works by Grotius
- On the Laws of War and Peace (abridged)
- On the Laws of War and Peace (Latin, first edition 1625)
- Logicarum disputationum quarta de postpraedicamentis; disputation, aged 14, at Leiden University
- Physicarum disputationum septima de infinito, loco et vacuo; disputation, aged 14, at Leiden University
Other
- Extensive catalogue of Grotius' writings at the Peace Palace Library, The Hague. Archived 3 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine Unfortunately, this links leads to: "Forbidden. You don't have permission to access /files/Grotius_Collection.pdf on this server."
- The Correspondence of Hugo de Groot (Grotius) in EMLO
- Blom, Andrew. "Hugo Grotius". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Miller, Jon. "Hugo Grotius". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Hugo Grotius' Quotes