Civil liberties

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Civil liberties are guarantees and freedoms that governments commit not to abridge, either by constitution, legislation, or judicial interpretation, without due process. Though the scope of the term differs between countries, civil liberties may include the freedom of conscience, freedom of press, freedom of religion, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly, the right to security and liberty, freedom of speech, the right to privacy, the right to equal treatment under the law and due process, the right to a fair trial, and the right to life. Other civil liberties include the right to own property, the right to defend oneself, and the right to bodily integrity. Within the distinctions between civil liberties and other types of liberty, distinctions exist between positive liberty/positive rights and negative liberty/negative rights.

Overview

Broken Liberty: Istanbul Archaeology Museum

Many contemporary nations have a

property rights, reproductive rights, and civil marriage. In authoritarian regimes in which government censorship impedes on perceived civil liberties, some civil liberty advocates argue for the use of anonymity tools to allow for free speech, privacy, and anonymity.[1] The degree to which democracies acknowledge civil liberties is affected by the influence of terrorism.[2] Whether the existence of victimless crimes infringes upon civil liberties is also a matter of dispute. Another matter of debate is the suspension or alteration of certain civil liberties in times of war or state of emergency
, including whether and to what extent this should occur.

The formal concept of civil liberties is often dated back to Magna Carta, an English legal charter agreed in 1215 which in turn was based on pre-existing documents, namely the Charter of Liberties.[3]

Asia

China

Main article:
Civil liberties in the People's Republic of China

The Constitution of the People's Republic of China (which applies only to mainland China, not to Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan) especially its Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens, claims to protect many civil liberties. Taiwan, which is separated from Mainland China, has its own Constitution.

Although the 1982 constitution guarantees civil liberties,[4] the Chinese government usually uses the "subversion of state power" and "protection of state secrets" clauses in their law system to imprison those who criticize the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the state leaders.[5]

India

Main article:
Fundamental Rights in India

The Fundamental Rights – embodied in Part III of the constitution – guarantee liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace as citizens of India. The six fundamental rights are right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights and right to constitutional remedies.[6]

Huge rallies like this one in Kolkata are commonplace in India.

These include individual rights common to most

minorities
by allowing them to preserve their languages and administer their own educational institutions.

All people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have the right to approach the

public interest litigation".[7]
High Court and Supreme Court judges can also act on their own on the basis of media reports.

The Fundamental Rights emphasize equality by guaranteeing to all citizens the access and use of public institutions and protections, irrespective of their background. The rights to life and personal liberty apply to persons of any nationality, while others, such as the freedom of speech and expression are applicable only to the

non-resident Indian citizens).[8] The right to equality in matters of public employment cannot be conferred to overseas citizens of India.[9]

Fundamental Rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary State actions, but some rights are enforceable against private individuals too.

Kesavananda Bharati vs. state of Kerala case, the Supreme Court ruled that all provisions of the constitution, including Fundamental Rights can be amended.[11] However, the Parliament cannot alter the basic structure of the constitution like secularism, democracy, federalism, separation of powers. Often called the "Basic structure doctrine", this decision is widely regarded as an important part of Indian history. In the 1978 Maneka Gandhi
v. Union of India case, the Supreme Court extended the doctrine's importance as superior to any parliamentary legislation. According to the verdict, no act of parliament can be considered a law if it violated the basic structure of the constitution. This landmark guarantee of Fundamental Rights was regarded as a unique example of judicial independence in preserving the sanctity of Fundamental Rights. The Fundamental Rights can only be altered by a constitutional amendment, hence their inclusion is a check not only on the executive branch, but also on the Parliament and state legislatures.
state of emergency may lead to a temporary suspension of the rights conferred by Article 19 (including freedoms of speech, assembly and movement, etc.) to preserve national security and public order. The President
can, by order, suspend the constitutional written remedies as well.

Japan

Main article: Human rights in Japan

Since 1947,

U.S. Constitution prior to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and that is because it came into life during the Allied occupation of Japan. This constitution may have felt like a foreign imposition to the governing elites, but not to the ordinary people "who lacked faith in their discredited leaders and supported meaningful change."[14] In the abstract, the constitution strives to secure fundamental individual liberties and rights, which are covered pointedly in articles 10 to 40. Most salient of the human dignity articles is article 25, section 1, which guarantees that all "people shall have the right to maintain the minimum standards of wholesome and cultured living."[15]

Despite the adoption of this liberal constitution, often referred as the "Postwar Constitution" (戦後憲法, Sengo-Kenpō) or the "Peace Constitution" (平和憲法, Heiwa-Kenpō), the Japanese governing elites have struggled to usher in an inclusive, open and

war crimes, institutional religious discrimination and maintaining a weak freedom of the press, the treatment of children, minorities, foreigners, and women, its punitive criminal justice system, and more recently, the systematic bias against LGBT people.[17][18][19]

The first Japanese attempt to a bill of rights was in the 19th century

Meiji constitution (1890), which took both the Prussian (1850) and British constitutions as basic models.[20] However, it had but a meager influence in the practice of the rule of law as well as in people's daily living. So, the short and deliberately gradual history of struggles for personal rights and protection against government/society's impositions has yet to transform Japan into a champion of universal and individual freedom.[21][22][23] According to constitutional scholar, Shigenori Matsui
,

People tend to view the bill of rights as a moral imperative and not as a judicial norm. The people also tend to rely upon bureaucrats to remedy social problems, including even human rights violations, rather than the court.

— Shigenori Matsui, "The protection of 'Fundamental human rights' in Japan."[24]

Despite the divergences between Japan's social culture and the

peninsula.[25] However, human rights group, and families of the survivors condemned the agreement as patronizing and insulting.[26]

On its official site, the Japanese government has identified various human rights problems. Among these are child abuses (e.g.,

Hansen's disease patients, persons released from prison after serving their sentence, crime victims, people whose human rights are violated using the Internet, the homeless, individuals with gender identity disorders, and women. Also, the government lists systematic problems with gender biases and the standard reference to sexual preferences for jobs and other functions in society.[27]

Human rights organizations, national and foreign, expand the list to include human rights violations that relate to government policies, as in the case of

daiyo kangoku system (substitute prison) and the methods of interrogating crime suspects.[28] The effort of these agencies and ordinary people seem to pay off. In 2016, the U.S. Department of State released a report stating that Japan's human right record is showing signs of improvement.[29]

Australia

Whilst Australia does not have an enshrined Bill of Rights or similar binding legal document, civil liberties are assumed as protected through a series of rules and conventions. Australia had primary involvement in and was a key signatory to the UN Universal Declaration on Human Rights (1948)

The Constitution of Australia (1900) does offer very limited protection of rights:

  • the right to freedom of religion and;
  • the right to freedom from discrimination based on out-of-state residence (historical prejudice based upon residence within one state affecting treatment within another)

Certain High Court interpretations of the Constitution have allowed for implied rights such as freedom of political communication (which is construed broadly) and the right to vote to be established, however others such as freedom of assembly and freedom of association are yet to be identified.

Refugee issues

Within the past decade Australia has experienced increasing contention regarding its treatment of those seeking asylum. Although Australia is a signatory to the UN Refugee Convention (1951), successive governments have demonstrated an increasing tightening of borders; particularly against those who seek passage via small water vessels.

The Abbott Government (2013) like its predecessors (the Gillard and Howard Governments) has encountered particular difficulty curbing asylum seekers via sea, increasingly identified as "illegal immigration". The recent involvement of the Australian Navy in refugee rescue operations has many human rights groups such as Amnesty International concerned over the "militarisation" of treatment to the refugee and the issue of their human rights in Australia. The current "turn-back" policy is particularly divisive, as it involves placing refugees in government lifeboats and turning them towards Indonesia. Despite opposition however, the Abbott government's response has so far seen a reduction in the number of potential refugees undertaking the hazardous cross to Australia, which is argued by the government as an indicator for its policy success.

Europe

European Convention on Human Rights

The European Convention on Human Rights, to which almost all European countries belong (apart from Belarus), enumerates a number of civil liberties and is of varying constitutional force in different European states.

Czech Republic

Following the

Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms was adopted, having the same legal standing as the Constitution. The Czech Republic has kept the Charter in its entirety following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia
as Act No. 2/1993 Coll. (Constitution being No. 1).

France

France's 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen listed many civil liberties and is of constitutional force.

Germany

The

Federal Constitutional Court of Germany
("Bundesverfassungsgericht") if they feel their civil rights are being violated. This procedure has shaped German law considerably over the years.

United Kingdom

Main article: Civil liberties in the United Kingdom

Civil liberties in the

statute law, such as the 1628 Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and the Bill of Rights 1689. Parts of these laws remain in statute today and are supplemented by other legislation and conventions that collectively form the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom. In addition, the United Kingdom is a signatory to the European Convention on Human Rights which covers both human rights and civil liberties. The Human Rights Act 1998
incorporates the great majority of Convention rights directly into UK law.

In June 2008 the then Shadow Home Secretary

resigned his parliamentary seat over what he described as the "erosion of civil liberties" by the then Labour government, and was re-elected on a civil liberties platform (although he was not opposed by candidates of other major parties). This was in reference to anti-terrorism laws and in particular the extension to pre-trial detention, that is perceived by many to be an infringement of habeas corpus
established in Magna Carta.

Russia

The

freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and freedom of association amidst growing authoritarianism.[30]

North America

Canada

The Constitution of Canada includes the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms which guarantees many of the same rights as the U.S. constitution. The Charter omits any mention of, or protection for, property.

Mexico

The

death threats, and defamation are exceptions to freedom of speech, and offenders can be subject to penalties). However, unlike the United States and Canada, Mexico has stricter limits on citizenship. For example, only people born in Mexico may take roles in law enforcement, legislating, or enlist in the armed forces. It also states each person born in Mexico cannot be deprived of their citizenship status.[31]

United States

Main article: Civil liberties in the United States

The

tribal courts.[33]

The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 was signed into effect by President Ronald Reagan on August 10, 1988. The act was passed by Congress to issue a public apology for those of Japanese ancestry who lost their property and liberty due to discriminatory actions by the United States Government during the internment period. This act also provided many other benefits within various sectors of the government. Within the treasury it established a civil liberties public education fund. It directed the Attorney General to identify and locate each individual affected by this act and to pay them $20,000 from the civil liberties public education fund. It also established a board of directors who is responsible for making disbursements from this fund. Finally, it required that all documents and records that are created or received by the commission be kept by the Archivist of the United States.[34]

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ Ghappour, Ahmed (2017-09-01). "Data Collection and the Regulatory State". Connecticut Law Review. 49 (5): 1733.
  2. S2CID 110482777
    .
  3. ^ Hugh Starkey, Professor of Citizenship and Human Rights Education at UCL Institute of Education, London. "Magna Carta and Human rights legislation". British Library. Retrieved 22 November 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ "Constitution of the People's Republic of China". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  5. ^ "China jails rights activist outspoken on Tibet". Reuters. 3 April 2008.
  6. ^ Constitution of India-Part III Fundamental Rights.
  7. public interest litigation
    was introduced (date of ruling 15 December 1995).
  8. ^ Tayal, B.B. & Jacob, A. (2005), Indian History, World Developments and Civics, p. A-25
  9. ^ "Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2003" (PDF). Rajya Sabha. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-04-25. Retrieved 2006-05-25.
  10. ^ "Bodhisattwa Gautam vs. Subhra Chakraborty; 1995 ICHRL 69". [World Legal Information Institute]. Retrieved 2006-05-25. This was the case where Fundamental Rights were enforced against private individuals (date of ruling 15 December 1995).
  11. Kesavananda Bharati vs. state of Kerala; AIR 1973 S.C. 1461, (1973) 4 SCC 225 – In what became famously known as the "Fundamental Rights case", the Supreme Court
    decided that the basic structure of the constitution was unamendable.
  12. ^ Tayal, B.B. & Jacob, A. (2005), Indian History, World Developments and Civics, p. A-24
  13. ISBN 978-1576072714
    .
  14. SSRN 2270399
    .
  15. ^ Yokota, Yozo, & Chiyuki Aoi (2000). "Japan's foreign policy towards human rights: uncertain changes" (PDF). Human Rights and Comparative Foreign Policy: Foundations of Peace, Edited by David Forsythe. United Nations University Press: Chapter 5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ISBN 978-1107014077
    .
  17. ^ "Japan veering away from global human rights standards, says Amnesty International". The Japan Times. Kyodo News. February 25, 2015. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
  18. ^ Suzanne Trimel (July 25, 2014). "UN Urges End to Discrimination Against LGBT Individuals in Japan". Analysis. Outright International. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
  19. ^ Osumi, Magdalena (June 26, 2015). "U.S. rights report slams Japan on child abuse, prison conditions, asylum system". News report. Japan Times. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
  20. ^ Kazuhiro Takii and David Noble, The Meiji Constitution: The Japanese Experience of the West and the Shaping of the Modern State (Tokyo, Japan: International House of Japan, 2007), 181.
  21. ^ Andrew Gordon, Postwar Japan As History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 91.
  22. ISBN 978-1400871667
    . Retrieved July 5, 2016.
  23. ^ Ugo Dessì, Japanese Religions and Globalization. London: Routledge, 2013, p. 64.
  24. ^ “The protection of ‘Fundamental human rights’ in Japan,” a chapter in Human Rights in Asia: A Comparative Legal Study of Twelve Asian Jurisdictions, France and the USA, edited by Peerenboom, R. P., Carole Petersen, and Hongyi Chen (London: Routledge, 2006), 149
  25. ^ "Japan and South Korea agree WW2 'comfort women' deal". BBC. December 28, 2015. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
  26. ^ Sanghani, Radhika (December 29, 2015). "The horrific story of Korea's 'comfort women' – forced to be sex slaves during World War Two". Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
  27. ^ Government of Japan (March 6, 2009). "Major Human Rights Problems". Human Rights Bureau. Ministry of Justice, Japan. Archived from the original on April 23, 2018. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
  28. ^ Jeffrey Flynn, Reframing the Intercultural Dialogue on Human Rights: A Philosophical Approach (London: Routledge, 2014), 114.
  29. ^ Wanklyn, Alastair (April 14, 2016). "Japan human rights improve but problems persist: U.S. State Department". Japan Times. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
  30. ^ "Putin rolling back civil rights, warns Amnesty". the Guardian. February 27, 2008.
  31. ^ "Constitución reordenada y consolidada".
  32. ^ America's Constitution: A Biography by Akhil Reed Amar
  33. ^ Robert J. McCarthy, "Civil Rights in Tribal Courts; The Indian Bill of Rights at 30 Years", 34 Idaho Law Review 465 (1998).
  34. ^ Foley, Thomas (1988). "Civil Liberties Act of 1987 – Conference Report". Congress.gov. Retrieved 2015-06-18.

Further reading

  • Chronicle of Higher Education
    , Chronicle Review, September 28, 2001. Accessed August 11, 2006.
  • Smith, Jean Edward, and Herbert M. Levine. Civil Liberties and Civil Rights Debated. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1988.

External links

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