Oromo people
The Oromo were originally
Origins and nomenclature
Subsequent colonial era documents mention and refer to the Oromo people as Galla,
The term, Galla, was in use for Oromo people by the
History
The earliest recorded mention of the Oromos comes from the Italian (Venetian) cartographer Fra Mauro, who notes a Galla River south of the Awash River, in his famous Mappomondo, or map of the world, completed in 1460. This reference indicates that the Oromos inhabited this area of southern Ethiopia for at least a century and a half before their migration north. As early as the 12th century, all aspects of Oromo life was governed by the Gadaa system, a political and ritual system based on an egalitarian ethos, age grade social organization and highly structured institutions. Under Gadaa, every eight years, the Oromo would choose by consensus nine leaders known as Salgan ya’ii Borana (the nine Borana assemblies).[55][56] A leader elected by the gadaa system remains in power only for 8 years, with an election taking place at the end of those 8 years.[26][27][28] Whenever an Abbaa Gadaa dies while exercising his functions, the bokkuu (the symbol of power) passes to his wife and she keeps the bokkuu and proclaims the laws.[57][58]
The first detailed history of the Oromo people comes from the Ethiopian monk
According to
The early 17th century witnessed the gradual integration of the Oromo into the
In the late 17th century the Oromos had settled in the territories south of the
The French traveler, Charles-Xavier Rochet d'Héricourt, visited Ethiopia in 1863,[71] and was greeted by Sahle Selassie, the ruler of Shewa. During his time there, he observed the different ethnicities within Ethiopia, which one of them were the Oromo people.[72] He described them as such:
"[The] Galla breed is the most beautiful in Africa; it is not originally from
invasion, as we will see below in the history that I will give of the Kingdom of Choa (Shewa). The Gallas are, in general, well built, they have a tall figure, a broad and raised forehead, an aquiline nose, a well-cut mouth, a copper complexion rather than black; their hair is braided into small braids which float around their heads, and mix something graceful with the expressive and noble character of their physiognomy: accustomed, from their most tender youth, to ride horses, to carry the butcher and the spear, they are excellent horsemen and insensitive to the harshest fatigue; full of courage and valor in combat, they showed themselves, in their fields, skillful and laborious farmers: this great nation, because we can call it that could led by an enterprising leader, make itself master of the whole of Africa."[73]
In the last quarter of the 19th century, the Oromo tribes and kingdoms fell under the rule of Menelik II of Shewa. Beginning in the 1870s, the Kingdom of Shewa annexed one Oromo territory after the other with unpreceded speed owing to the modern weapons acquired from the international arms trade and the disunity among various Oromo groups. The manner this conquest was carried out determined the form of administrations that was subsequently set up in the newly conquered areas. In areas where the Shewans encountered resistance, such as Arsi, the conquering generals were installed as governors and the Amhara soldiers or neftenya settled the region in military garrisons known as katamas which later become the administrative centers for Shewan rule. These officials and soldier-settlers lived off the land of the locals, who soon became serfs to the Shewan aristocrats. In the areas were the Oromos submitted peacefully, such as the Kingdom of Jimma, the indigenous rulers were made tributaries to the crown but were allowed to self-govern themselves with minimal interference from the central government. During Haile Selassie's rule, many Oromos lost their autonomous status granted to them by Menelik, Haile Selassie abolished the semi-independent status of many Oromo states and began to undergo a period of centralization. Pastoralists were evicted to make way for mechanized farming and the few members of the educated Oromo class were prevented from holding powerful positions, instead being held by assimilated or Amharized Oromo notables. Despite the great contribution of the Oromo regions to the Ethiopian economy, Oromos areas were left out of the modernization projects during the reign of Haile Selassie.[74]
This discontent emanating from the political marginalization, economic exploitation and the cultural domination of the Oromo led to the rise of the Mecha and Tulama Self-Help Association in 1963, ostensibly for organizing Oromo self-help, but in fact to promote Oromo identity and fight the marginalization of the Oromo. The Mecha and Tulama Association was soon disbanded by the government, but its impact was significant. The movement raised the consciousness of the Oromo regrading the significance of their own cultural and historical contributions and their status as a people within the Ethiopian state.[75]
Demographics
The Oromos are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia (35.8% of the population),
Oromo also have a notable presence in northern Kenya in the
Subgroups
The Oromo consist of two major branches that break down into an assortment of clan families. From west to east: the
Language
Oromo is written with Latin characters known as Qubee. The Sapalo script was invented by the Oromo scholar Sheikh
More than 35%
of Ethiopia's population are Oromo mother-tongue speakers, which makes it the most widely spoken primary language in Ethiopia.
Religion
The Oromo followed their traditional religion,
In the mid and late 19th century, the Ethiopian emperors were faced with widespread rifts and disputes in the
In the 2007 Ethiopian census for Oromia region, which included Oromo and some non-Oromo residents, there was a total of 13,107,963 followers of
According to a 2016 estimate by James Minahan, about half of the Oromo people are Sunni Muslim, a third are Ethiopian Orthodox, and the rest are mostly Protestants or follow their traditional religious beliefs.[96] The traditional religion is more common in southern Oromo populations and Christianity more common in and near the urban centers, while Islam is more common near the Somali border and in the north.[78]
Cuisine
Oromo dishes
The
- Foon Akaawwii – Minced roasted meat; specially seasoned.
- Waaddii – Outdoor grilled meat on heat bead or wood fire.
- Anchotte – A common dish in the western part of Oromia (Wallaga)
- Baduu – Liquid remaining after milk has been curdled and strained (cheese)
- Maarqaa – Porridge made from wheat, honey, milk, chili and spices.
- Chechebsaa – Shredded Injera stir-fried with chili powder and cheese.
- Qoocco – Also known as kocho, it is not the Gurage type of kocho but a different kind; a common dish in the western part of Oromia.
- Itto – Comprises all sorts of vegetables (tomato, potato, ginger, garlic), meat (lamb)
- Chukkoo – Also known as Micira; a sweet flavor of whole grain, seasoned with butter and spices.[98]
- Chororsaa – A common dish in the western part of Oromia.
- Dokkee – A common dish throughout Oromia state.
- Qince – Similar to Maarqaa but made from shredded grains as opposed to flour.
- Qorso (Akaayii) – A snack.
- Dadhii – A drink made from honey.
- Farsho – Beer-like Beverage, made from barley.
- Buna – Ethiopian Coffee[99]
Culture
Gadaa
Oromo people have governed themselves in accordance with the Gadaa system long before the 16th century. The system regulates the political, economic, social and religious activities of the community.[100] Oromo were traditionally a culturally homogeneous society with genealogical ties.[101] A male born in the Oromo clan went through five stages of eight years, where his life established his role and status for consideration to a Gadaa office.[101] Every eight years, the Oromo would choose by consensus nine leaders for the office.[55][56] A leader elected by the Gadaa system remains in power only for eight years, with an election taking place at the end of those eight years.[26][27][28]
There are three Gadaa organs of governance: Gadaa Council, Gadaa General Assembly (gumi gayo), and the Qallu Assembly. The Gadaa Council is considered the collective achievement of the members of the Gadaa class. It is responsible for coordinating
Calendar
The Oromo people developed a lunisolar calendar; different geographically and religiously distinct Oromo communities use the same calendar. This calendar is sophisticated and similar to ones found among the Chinese, the Hindus and the Mayans. It was tied to the traditional religion of the Oromos, and used to schedule the Gadaa system of elections and power transfer.[103]
The Borana Oromo
Oromumma
Some modern authors such as Gemetchu Megerssa have proposed the concept of Oromumma, or 'Oromoness' as a cultural common between Oromo people.[108] The word is derived by combining Oromo with the Arabic term ummah (community). However, according to Terje Østebø and other scholars, this term is a neologism from the late 1990s and its link Oromo ethno-nationalism and Salafi Islamic discourse has been questioned, in their disagreement with Christian Amhara and other ethnic groups.[109]
The Oromo people, depending on their geographical location and historical events, have variously converted to Islam, to Christianity, or remained with their traditional religion (Waaqeffanna). According to Gemetchu Megerssa, the subjective reality is that "neither traditional Oromo rituals nor traditional Oromo beliefs function any longer as a cohesive and integral symbol system" for the Oromo people, not just regionally but even locally.[108] The cultural and ideological divergence within the Oromo people, in part from their religious differences, is apparent from the constant impetus for negotiations between broader Oromo spokespersons and those Oromo who are Ahl al-Sunna followers, states Terje Østebø.[110] The internally evolving cultural differences within the Oromos have led some scholars such as Mario Aguilar and Abdullahi Shongolo to conclude that "a common identity acknowledged by all Oromo in general does not exist".[111]
Social stratification
Like other ethnic groups in the Horn of Africa and East Africa, Oromo people regionally developed social stratification consisting of four hierarchical strata. The highest strata were the nobles called the Borana; below them were the Gabbaro (some 17th- to 19th-century Ethiopian texts refer them as the dhalatta). Below these two upper castes were the despised castes of artisans, and at the lowest level were the slaves.[112]
In the Islamic Kingdom of Jimma, the Oromo society's caste strata predominantly consisted of endogamous, inherited artisanal occupations.[113][114][115][116] Each caste group has specialized in a particular occupation such as iron working, carpentry, weapon making, pottery, weaving, leather-working and hunting.[117][114]
Each caste in the Oromo society had a designated name. For example, Tumtu were smiths, Fuga were potters, Faqi were tanners and leatherworkers, Semmano were weavers, Gagurtu were beekeepers and honey-makers, and Watta were hunters and foragers.[113][118][119] While slaves were a stratum within the society, many Oromos, regardless of caste, were sold into slavery elsewhere. By the 19th century, Oromo slaves were sought after and a major part of slaves sold in Gondar and Gallabat slave markets at Ethiopia-Sudan border, as well as the Massawa and Tajura markets on the Red Sea.[120][121] There was also a large slave market at al Hudaydah on the coast of Yemen.[122]
Livelihood
The Oromo people are engaged in many occupations. The southern Oromo (specifically the
Contemporary era
Human rights issues
In December 2009, a 96-page report titled "Human Rights in Ethiopia: Through the Eyes of the Oromo Diaspora", compiled by the Advocates for Human Rights, documented
According to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, the Oromia Support Group (OSG) recorded 594 extrajudicial killings of Oromos by Ethiopian government security forces and 43 disappearances in custody between 2005 and August 2008.[125]
Starting in November 2015, during a wave of mass protests, mainly by Oromos, over the expansion of the municipal boundary of the city of
With the rising political unrest, there was
Protests broke out across Ethiopia, chiefly in the Oromia region, following the assassination of musician Hachalu Hundessa on 29 June 2020, leading to the deaths of at least 200 people.[132] On 30 June 2020, a statue of former Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie in London was destroyed by Oromo protestors[133] in response to the killing of popular singer Hachalu Hundessa and grievances of the Oromo language being banned from education, and the use in administration under the Haile Selassie regime.[134][135][136]
Political organizations
The Oromo have played a major role in the internal dynamics of Ethiopia.
At present a number of ethnic-based political organizations have been formed to promote the interests of the Oromo. The first was the
Several of these groups seek to create an independent Oromo nation, some using armed force.[140][141] Meanwhile, the ruling OPDO and several opposition political parties in the Ethiopian parliament believe in ethnic federalism. However, most Oromo opposition parties in Ethiopia condemn the economic and political inequalities in the country.[142][143] Progress toward independence started in the 1960s[144] and 70s,[141][145] but progress has been slow aside from the creation of Oromo-focused banks, notably the Oromo-owned Awash International Bank in 1994[146][147] and the Oromia Bank (formerly Oromia National Bank) established in 2008.[148]
Radio broadcasts began in the Oromo language in Somalia in 1960 on
Various human rights organizations have publicized the government persecution of Oromos in Ethiopia for decades. In 2008, the OFDM opposition party condemned the government's indirect role in the death of hundreds of Oromos in western Ethiopia.[157] According to Amnesty International, "between 2011 and 2014, at least 5000 Oromos have been arrested based on their actual or suspected peaceful opposition to the government. These include thousands of peaceful protestors and hundreds of opposition political party members. The government anticipates a high level of opposition in Oromia, and signs of dissent are sought out and regularly, sometimes pre-emptively, suppressed. In numerous cases, actual or suspected dissenters have been detained without charge or trial, killed by security services during protests, arrests and in detention."[158]
According to Amnesty International, there is a sweeping repression in the Oromo region of Ethiopia.[158] On 12 December 2015, the German broadcaster Deutsche Welle reported violent protests in the Oromo region of Ethiopia in which more than 20 students were killed. According to the report, the students were protesting against the government's re-zoning plan named 'Addis Ababa Master Plan'.
On 2 October 2016, between 55 and 300 festival-goers were massacred at the most sacred and largest event among the Oromo, the Irreechaa cultural thanksgiving festival.[159] In one day, dozens were killed and many injured. Every year, millions of Oromos gather in Bishoftu for this annual celebration. That year Ethiopian security forces responded to peaceful protests by firing tear gas and live bullets at over two million people surrounded by a lake and cliffs. In the week that followed, angry youth attacked government buildings and private businesses. On 8 October, the government responded with an abusive and far-reaching state of emergency, which was lifted in August 2017.[160] During the state of emergency, security forces arbitrarily detained over 21,000 people.[161]
Notable people
See also
- Afroasiatic languages
- Barentu (Oromo)
- Borana people
- Ethiopians
- Gadaa
- Irreechaa
- List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia
- List of Oromo subgroups and clans
- Oromia
- Oromia Zone
- Oromo language
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Further reading
- Donald N. Levine (2014). Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-22967-6.
- Tsega Etefa, "Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation". New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. ISBN 978-0-230-11774-7
- Mohammed Hassan, "The Oromo of Ethiopia, A History 1570–1860". Trenton: Red Sea Press, 1994. ISBN 0-932415-94-6
- Herbert S. Lewis. "A Galla Monarchy: Jimma Abba Jifar, Ethiopia 1830–1932". Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1965.
- "RIC Query – Ethiopia". INS Resource Information Center. Archived from the original on 1 November 2005. Retrieved 8 October 2005.
- Temesgen M. Erena, Oromia: 'Civilisation, Colonisation And Underdevelopment, Oromia Quarterly, No.1, July 2002, ISSN 1460-1346.