Panama disease
Panama disease | |
---|---|
Common names | Panama disease Fusarium wilt of banana Vascular wilt of banana |
Causal agents | Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense |
Hosts | Banana |
Vectors | Water, soil residues, replanting of suckers, farming tools and transport, leaf trash |
EPPO Code | FUSACB |
Distribution | Indonesia, China, Malaysia, Australia, the Philippines, Jordan, Vietnam, Laos, Pakistan, Lebanon, Mozambique, Oman |
Panama disease (or Fusarium wilt) is a plant disease that infects banana plants (Musa spp.). It is a wilting disease caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc). The pathogen is resistant to fungicides and its control is limited to phytosanitary measures.[1]
During the 1950s, an outbreak of Panama disease almost wiped out commercial
Overview
Although fruits of the wild bananas (Musa spp.) have large, hard seeds, most edible bananas are seedless. Banana plants are therefore propagated asexually from offshoots. Because these rhizomes are usually free of symptoms even when the plant is infected by F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense, they are a common means by which this pathogen is disseminated. It can also be spread in soil and running water, on farm implements or machinery.[2]
Panama disease is one of the most destructive plant diseases of modern times.[2][3] It is believed to have originated in Southeast Asia[4] and was first reported in Australia in 1876.[5] The disease didn't attract widespread attention until the early 20th century when it began heavily affecting banana cultivations in Panama and Costa Rica.[6] By 1950 it had spread to all the banana-producing regions of the world with the exception of some islands in the South Pacific, the Mediterranean, Melanesia and Somalia.[5]
Panama disease affects a wide range of banana cultivars; however, it is best known for the damage it caused to a single cultivar in the early export plantations.
By the middle of the 20th century, resistant cultivars in the '
A variant cultivar called Formosana (GCTCV-218), a type of Taiwanese Cavendish, has been reported in the popular press as having some resistance to TR4,[11] as well as by Molina et al 2009,[12] although in 2015 Ploetz was of the opinion that it has been evaluated as having no resistance at all.[13] 'GCTCV-119' is another Taiwanese Cavendish used commercially for its TR4 resistance.[12]
To make things worse, this variant of the pathogen also affects
Apart from the export trade, 85% of banana production is for local consumption and many of the cultivars used for this purpose are also susceptible to infection.[5]
Distribution
Not all banana-producing countries have been affected by the outbreak of Panama disease. Tropical Race 4 (TR4) was first identified in Taiwan,[15] and from there rapidly spread to Indonesia, China, Malaysia, Australia and the Philippines.[16] The disease was then identified in Jordan in 2013.[17] TR4 later spread to Vietnam[18] and Laos,[19] as well as to the Middle East being reported in Pakistan and Lebanon.[20] In 2015, the disease then spread to Africa, being informally announced in Mozambique and Oman.[16] In August 2019, TR4 arrived in Colombia, a country in Latin America, the region comprising the world's biggest banana exporters.[21]
Symptoms
Infection by F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense triggers the self-defense mechanisms of the host plant causing the secretion of a
Two external symptoms help characterize Panama disease of banana:
- Yellow leaf syndrome, the yellowing of the border of the leaves which eventually leads to bending of the petiole.[1]
- Green leaf syndrome, which occurs in certain cultivars, marked by the persistence of the green color of the leaves followed by the bending of the petiole as in yellow leaf syndrome. Internally, the disease is characterized by a vascular discoloration. This begins in the roots and rhizomes with a yellowing that proceeds to a reddish-brown color in the pseudostem, as the pathogen blocks the plant's nutrient and water transport.[1][23]
- With proceeding infection, the banana pseudostem can split, and eventually the whole plant collapses.[1]
External symptoms often get confused with the symptoms of bacterial wilt of banana, but ways to differentiate between the two diseases include:
- Fusarium wilt proceeds from older to younger leaves, but bacterial wilt is the opposite.
- Fusarium wilt has no symptoms on the growing buds or suckers, no exudates visible within the plant, and no symptoms in the fruit. Bacterial wilt can be characterized by distorted or necrotic buds, bacterial ooze within the plant, and fruit rot and necrosis.[23]
Once a banana plant is infected, recovery is rare, but if it does occur, any new emerging suckers will already be infected and can propagate disease if planted.[23]
Classification and host range
- Race 1 was involved in the 1960s Panama disease outbreak which destroyed much of the Gros Michel banana plantations in Central America. In addition to Gros Michel, Race 1 also attacks other members of the banana AAB genomic group, including Abacá, Maqueño, the Silk subgroup, the Pome subgroup, Pisang Awak, Ducasse, and Lady Finger.[27] Cavendish cultivars are resistant to Race 1.
- Race 2 infects cooking bananas with ABB genome and the Bluggoe subgroup.[24]
- Race 3 infecting Heliconia spp. is no longer considered pathogenic to bananas,[1] and has been renamed Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. heliconiae.[24][28]
- Race 4 is the causal agent of the current Panama disease outbreak since it is pathogenic to the currently used Cavendish cultivars (AAA genome). Race 4 is further subdivided into Tropical Race 4 (TR4) and Subtropical Race 4 (STR4). The latter only infects Cavendish and Race 1 and 2 susceptibles under abiotic stress.[29]
Tropical Race 1/TR1
Tropical Race 1/TR1 is also found in
Tropical Race 2/TR2
As of 13 November 2020[update] Tropical Race 2/TR2 is found in Queensland.[31]
Tropical Race 3/TR3
Tropical Race 3/TR3 is a pest of
Tropical Race 4/TR4
History of geographic spread
1997
- The first detection in Australia occurs near Darwin, Northern Territory.[31][36]
2005
- inflata, Euphorbia heterophylla, Cyanthillium cinereum, and Tridax procumbens, in banana farms in Australia known to be infected with TR4.[35] These weeds may be acting as sources of inoculum.[4]
2010
- Starting here TR4 spread from its origin in southeast Asia westward into Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, India, Pakistan, Oman, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, and Mozambique.[4]
2015
- March 26:[37] Sample taken from a suspect tree on a farm in Mareeba,[37] Queensland, Australia.[38]
- March 28: TR4 was detected in those samples.Panama TR4 Program and the Australian Banana Growers' Council.[38]
- May 18: Another 18 samples (of unspecified individual(s) from the same farm) tested negative.[37]
- BQ decided to only use vegetative compatibility groups and molecular diagnostics from then on.[37]
- First legitimate detection later in the year in Tully, Queensland.[31][36]
2017
- M. a. ssp. malaccensis.[41]
2018
- As of 13 July 2018[update] TR4 is found widely throughout Southeast Asia.[36][4]
2020
- As of November 2020[update] TR4 was still only found on five plantations in the same area due to this government and industry response.[38] Queensland's response to TR4 has been of interest to countries in Latin America as TR4 moves into that region for the first time.[38]
- As of 13 November 2020[update] TR4 is found in Laos, Vietnam, Taiwan, Malaysia, Borneo, Indonesia, mainland China, Philippines, Jordan, Mozambique, Pakistan, Lebanon, Oman, India, and North Queensland in Australia.[31]
2021
- In April the first detection in Peru occurred, in the Department of Piura, and on the 11th the National Service for Agricultural Health declared a phytosanitary emergency for the whole country. Ecuador had already been inspecting imports at the border due to Colombia's detection, and then increased inspections further in April.[42][43] The appearance of TR4 in Peru threatens its 170,000 hectares (420,000 acres) of plantations.[44]
Subtropical Race 4/STR4
Subtropical Race 4/STR4 is a subtropical race and does not become symptomatic on
Disease cycle
Modern commercially farmed banana plants are
The disease is dispersed by spores or infected material that travel in surface water or farming activities. One of the biggest issues in spreading the disease is the means by which new banana plants are planted. Suckers are taken from one plant and clonally propagated to grow new trees. About 30 to 40% of suckers from a diseased plant are infected and not all show symptoms, so the chance of growing a new, already infected plant is fairly high. Finally, the disease is known to infect certain weeds without showing symptoms, meaning it can survive in the absence of banana plants and remain undetected in a place where bananas are planted later.[46]
FOC is thought to persist only asexually, as no sexual phase (teleomorph) has been observed. Recombination events may occur via somatic hybridisation and the parasexual cycle.[47]
This means that the survival and dispersal of the disease relies on purely asexual spores and structures. The disease survives in chlamydospores which are released as the plant dies and can survive in the soil for up to 30 years. When the environment is ideal and there are host roots available (fungus is attracted to root exudates), these chlamydospores will germinate and hyphae will penetrate the roots, initiating infection. There is an increase in the number of symptomatic plants when inflorescences emerge and the highest disease incidence occurs right before harvest.[46] Once infected, microconidia are produced and proliferate within the vessels of the plant's vascular system. Macroconidia are another asexual spore that tends to be found on the surface of plants killed by Panama disease.[48] Infection is systemic, moving through the vascular system and causing yellowing and buckling that starts in older leaves and progresses to younger leaves until the entire plant dies.[46]
Dispersal
Splash by rainfall, movement of contaminated soil, and movement of contaminated
History
Gros Michel devastation era
The
The banana industry was in a serious crisis, so a new banana thought to be immune to Panama disease was found and adopted, the
TR4 devastation era
Tropical Race 4 (TR4) was discovered in Taiwan in 1989.[49] In July 2013, members of OIRSA, a Latin American regional organisation for plant and animal health, produced a contingency plan specific to TR4 for its nine member countries (Belize, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama). The plan is only available in Spanish.[50] In March 2015, Latin America growers met to create a regional defense effort and planned to meet again in September or October of that year. No specific regional measures are in place. Ecuadorian growers requested the government to fumigate all containers.[51]
Scientists are trying to modify the banana plant to make it resist Panama disease and many other serious banana afflictions ranging from fungal, bacterial, and viral infections to nematodes and beetles. Researchers are combing remote jungles searching for new wild bananas. Hybrid bananas are being created in the hope of generating a new variety with strong resistance to diseases. Some[who?] believe the best hope for a more resilient banana is through genetic engineering. However, the resulting fruit also needs to taste good, ripen in a predictable amount of time, travel long distances undamaged, and be easy to grow in great quantities. Currently, no cultivar or hybrid meets all of these criteria.
Australian quarantine
In Queensland, a farm in Tully, 1,500 kilometres (900 mi) north of Brisbane, was quarantined and some plants were destroyed after TR4 was detected on March 3, 2015. After an initial shutdown of the infected farm, truckloads of fruit left in April with harvesting allowed to resume under strict biosecurity arrangements. The government says it is not feasible to eradicate the fungus. Researchers like Gert Kema, based at Wageningen University, The Netherlands, say the disease will continue to spread, despite efforts to contain it, as long as susceptible varieties are being grown.[52] The disease was again detected in Tully in July 2017, prompting Biosecurity Queensland to impose quarantine conditions.[53]
Outside experts were brought in to review
Spread to Colombia
In August 2019, authorities in Colombia declared a
Disease management
As fungicides are largely ineffective, there are few options for managing Panama disease.[8] Chemical sterilisation of the soil with methyl bromide significantly reduced incidence of the disease but was found to be effective for only three years after which the pathogen had recolonised the fumigated areas.[55] Injecting the host plants with carbendazim and potassium phosphonate appears to provide some control but results have been inconclusive. Heat treatment of soil has also been tried in the Philippines but the pathogen is likely to reinvade the treated area.[5] The greatest hope for managing this disease in infested soils is the development of genetic modifications that will provide resistant cultivars.[56][57] Early research into Foc often was conducted by large companies with a financial interest in banana productivity, especially the United Fruit Company. Among UFC's notable pathologists was Frederick Wellman in the 1920s.[58]
Modified bananas developed in collaboration by Ugandan and Belgian scientists were reported in 2008 to be grown experimentally in Uganda.
Several
Currently, fungicides and other chemical and biological control agents have proven fairly unsuccessful, or only successful in vitro or in greenhouses, in the face of Panama disease of bananas. The most commonly used practices include mostly sanitation and quarantine practices to prevent the spread of Panama disease out of infected fields. However, the most effective tool against Panama disease is the development of banana plants resistant to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense.In 2017 a disease-resistance gene (
Taiwanese researchers believe that the onset of TR4 was linked to
Hong et al 2020 achieved significant
The resistance of different banana cultivars to the pathogen is under scrutiny.[65]
The FAO provides a sanitation and diagnostic manual.[23]
Banana breeding impeded by triploidy
One major impediment to breeding bananas is
Second-generation breeding using those new tetraploids as both parents has tended not to yield good results, because the first generation contains the Gros Michel triploid gene set intact (plus possibly useful features in the added fourth chromosome set), but in the second generation, the Gros Michel gene set has been broken up by meiosis.
The
See also
- List of banana and plantain diseases
- Black sigatoka (a leaf-spot disease of banana plants caused by the ascomycete fungus Mycosphaerella fijiensis (Morelet))
References
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- ^ Garcia-Bastidas, F., N. Ordonez, J. Konkol, M. Al-Qasim, Z. Naser, M. Abdelwali, N. Salem, C. Waalwijk, R. C. Ploetz and G. H. J. Kema (2014). "First Report of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp cubense Tropical Race 4 Associated with Panama Disease of Banana outside Southeast Asia." Plant Disease 98(5): 694-694.
- ^ Hung, T. N., N. Q. Hung, D. Mostert, A. Viljoen, C.-P. Chao and A. Molina (2017). "First report of Fusarium wilt on Cavendish bananas, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropical race 4 (VCG 01213/16), in Vietnam." Plant Disease: PDIS-08-17-1140-PDN.
- ^ Chittarath, K., D. Mostert, K. S. Crew, A. Viljoen, G. Kong, A. Molina and J. E. Thomas (2017). "First report of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropical race 4 (VCG 01213/16) associated with Cavendish bananas in Laos." Plant Disease: PDIS-08-17-1197-PDN.
- ^ Ordonez, L. N., F. Garcia-Bastidas, H. B. Laghari, M. Y. Akkary, E. N. Harfouche, B. N. al Awar and G. H. J. Kema (2016). "First Report of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp cubense Tropical Race 4 Causing Panama Disease in Cavendish Bananas in Pakistan and Lebanon." Plant Disease 100(1): 209-210.
- ^ a b Karp, Myles (12 August 2019). "The banana is one step closer to disappearing". National Geographic. Archived from the original on August 12, 2019. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
- ^ "Fusarium wilt - Promusa - Mobilizing banana science for sustainable livelihoods". promusa.org.
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Perez-Vincent, Luis; Dita, Miguel A.; Martinez-de la Parte, Einar (2022). "Technical Manual : Prevention and diagnostic of Fusarium Wilt (Panama disease) of banana caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense Tropical Race 4 (TR4)". S2CID 83358529. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
- ^ a b c Ploetz, R. C. (2006). "Fusarium wilt of banana is caused by several pathogens referred to as Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense." Phytopathology 96(6): 653-656.
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- ^ Baayen, R. P., K. O'Donnell, P. J. M. Bonants, E. Cigelnik, L. Kroon, E. J. A. Roebroeck and C. Waalwijk (2000). "Gene genealogies and AFLP analyses in the Fusarium oxysporum complex identify monophyletic and nonmonophyletic formae speciales causing wilt and rot disease." Phytopathology 90(8): 891-900.
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- ^ a b "Researchers Develop Cavendish Bananas Resistant to Panama Disease". ISAAA (International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications) Crop Biotech Update. 2021-02-24. Retrieved 2021-09-02.
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- ^ Sedgman, Phoebe (4 June 2015). "There Might Be No Saving the World's Top Banana". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2015-06-06.
- ^ McKillop, Charlie (13 July 2017). "Panama disease outbreak on Queensland banana farm prompts quarantine restrictions". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
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Further reading
- Koeppel, Dan (2019-03-18). "Can this fruit be saved?". Popular Science. Retrieved 2021-12-21. (discusses the disease threat to banana crops)
- Lovett, Brian (2021-06-24). "Clone Wars: How Fusarium Fungi Control the Banana Industry". American Society for Microbiology. Retrieved 2021-12-21. (less technical explanation)