Railway electrification in Great Britain
Railway electrification in Great Britain began in the late 19th century. A range of voltages has been used, employing both overhead lines and conductor rails. The two most common systems are
According to Network Rail, as at 2003, 64% of the electrified network used the 25 kV AC overhead system, and 36% used the 660/750 V DC third-rail system.[2]
The electrified network is set to expand over the coming years, as 25 kV electrification is extended to currently unelectrified lines such as the Midland Main Line, as well as lines in the North of England as part of the Northern Hub.[3]
History
Early electrification
The first electric railway in Great Britain was
Main line electrification of some suburban lines began in the early years of the 20th century, using a variety of different systems. The
) suburban commuter line was similarly electrified at 625 V by March 1904. Both of these lines initially used a fourth rail system.In 1921, a government committee chose 1,500 V DC overhead to be the national standard,[4] but little implementation followed and many different systems co-existed. During the interwar period, the Southern Railway adopted the 660 V DC third rail system as its standard and greatly expanded this system across its network of lines South of London.
Post-war
After World War II and the nationalisation of the railways in 1948,
Twenty-first century
The 25 kV AC network has continued to expand slowly, and large areas of the country outside London are not electrified. In 2007, the government's preferred option was to use diesel trains running on
In May 2009, Network Rail launched a consultation on large-scale electrification, potentially to include the Great Western Main Line and Midland Main Line and smaller "in-fill" schemes. Key benefits cited were that electric trains are faster, more reliable and cause less track wear than diesel trains.[7] On 5 June 2009, Lord Adonis was appointed Secretary of State for Transport, and announced the plans to electrify the Great Western Main Line from London as far as Swansea, as well as infill electrification schemes in the North West of England.
In Scotland, where transport is devolved to the Scottish Government, Transport Scotland has extended and continues to expand electrification, for example, on the Airdrie–Bathgate rail link. This is part of a larger plan that has seen many major routes in central Scotland electrified, including the main Edinburgh Waverley–Glasgow Queen Street route. They have pursued electrification with multiple schemes in the Central Belt. All these have been 25 kV AC, as in England and Wales.
In July 2012 the UK government announced £4.2 billion of new electrification schemes, all at 25 kV AC and reconfirmed schemes previously announced by Adonis. These were to be Northern Hub, Great Western Main Line, South Wales Main Line, Midland Main Line, Electric Spine, Crossrail, Gospel Oak to Barking line and West Midlands suburban lines including the Cross-City Line.
On 25 June 2015 the government announced that some of the electrification projects would be delayed or cut back because of rising costs. Electrification work was to be "paused" on the Trans-Pennine route between York and Manchester and on the Midland main line between Bedford and Sheffield. Electrification of the Great Western main line would go ahead but the status of the Reading–Newbury and Didcot–Oxford sections was unclear.[8]
However, in September 2015, the electrification work was "un-paused", but with a delayed completion date.[9] Since then there have been regular updates including one published in October 2016.[10]
On 20 July 2017 Chris Grayling the Secretary of State for Transport cancelled a number of electrification projects citing disruptive works and use of bi-mode technology as an alternative.[11]
Electrification has not been without controversy with cancellations and various appearances of the Secretary of State for Transport called before the Transport Select Committee. The Transport Select Committee published its report into various matters including regional investment disparity on the railways and calling again for the reinstatement of various cancelled electrification schemes.[12]
A written question was submitted and answered in parliament regarding route miles electrified in the years 1997–2019.[13]
In March 2019 the Railway Industry Association published a paper on Electrification cost challenge suggesting ways forward and a rolling program of electrification.[14]
Future of third rail
In June 2011 Peter Dearman of Network Rail suggested that the third-rail network will need to be converted into overhead lines. He stated: "Although the top speed is 100 mph (160 km/h), the trains cannot go over 80 mph (130 km/h) well and 25% of power is lost from heat." Agreeing that conversion would be expensive, he said that the
Existing systems – overhead line (OHL)
National Rail: 25 kV, 50 Hz AC overhead
Existing
- Electrified from London Paddington via Reading, Swindon and Bristol Parkway to Cardiff Central.[18]
- Electrified from Reading to Newbury.[19]
- Electrified from British Airports Authorityusing the Mark 3B series.
- Electrified from 1955 Modernisation Plan to Crewe, extended to Glasgow Centralin 1974 using the Mark 3A range.
- Northampton: see Northampton loop.
- Birmingham New Street: see Rugby–Birmingham–Stafford line.
- Crewe to Liverpool Lime Street.
- Stafford to Manchester Piccadilly: see Stafford–Manchester line and Crewe–Manchester line.
- The "Abbey Flyer" (Abbey Line) was electrified in 1987–88 by Network SouthEast.
- Edinburgh Waverley in 1989 (from Carstairs Junction in conjunction with East Coast Main Line electrification)
- In 2003, the Crewe–Kidsgrove section of the Crewe–Derby line was electrified as a diversionary route for the WCML.
- Since 1999, the line has been modernised and the overhead line equipment has been refurbished and renewed from Mark 1 / Mark 3A to UK1 range to allow an increase line speeds from 110 mph to 125 mph (with 140 mph capability in areas previously fitted with Automatically Tensioned Mark 1 equipment - subject to upgrading of the balance weight arrangement to provide individually tensioned contact / catenary wires and regrading of the contact wires). At the same time sections of the line are being progressively changed to autotransformer system.
- Electrified between City Thameslink.
- Electrification from Bedford to Kettering and Corby using the UK Master Series (MS125) range is expected by Spring 2021 (MML Phase 1), further extensions to Leicester, Nottingham Trent Junction and Sheffield (via Derby) by 2023 (MML Phase 2) were cancelled in July 2017. In November 2021, the Integrated Rail Plan (IRP) was published.[20] This included full Midland Main Line electrification. On 21 December 2021 it was announced that work would start immediately on electrification of the section between Kettering and Market Harborough.[21][22][23] Grant Shapps claimed this work was proof the IRP was being implemented quickly but was met with ridicule.[24]
- Newest main line, completed in 2007. Links London St Pancras with Ashford International and the Channel Tunnel.
- Electrified in two parts: 1975–78, and 1984–91
- The line between London King's Cross and Royston was electrified between 1976 and 1978 using the Mark 3A range as part of the Great Northern Suburban Electrification Project. This included the Hertford loop line. The section between Royston and Cambridge was electrified in 1988 using the Mark 3B range.[25]
- In 1984, authority was given to electrify to Edinburgh and Leeds.[26] The section between Hitchin and Peterborough was completed in 1987, and Doncaster and York were reached in 1989. By 1990, electrification had reached Newcastle, and in 1991 Edinburgh Waverley. The Mark 3B range was used throughout the electrification scheme, certain areas are presently being upgraded to the Mark 3D design range, this will eliminate known corrosion issues with the AWAC catenary and replace solid stainless steel droppers with flexible copper current carrying designs. Some headspan to portal conversions are also taking place.
- In order to keep construction teams working, two additional schemes were authorised, to North Berwick Line).
- At the peak of the electrification project during the late 1980s, it was claimed to be the "longest construction site in the world" at over 250 miles (400 km).
- Fen Line
This covers the lines from
- London Liverpool Street to Norwich.
- Converted from 1,500 V DC (see 1,500 V DC section "Shenfield Metro")
Converted from 6.25 kV/1,500 V DC to a combination of AT and FT 25 kV Mark GE (Great Eastern) between 1976 and 1980. Presently being upgraded to the GEFF (Great Eastern Furrer + Frey) range altering the catenary from a compound to simple sagged arrangement.
- Romford–Upminster line
- Shenfield–Southend line
- Crouch Valley line
- Braintree branch line
- Mayflower line
- Sunshine Coast Line
Local lines within London electrified with 25 kV are:
- Stratford.
- Lea Valley lines
- Gospel Oak to Barking line
- Various other suburban lines in the north of the city are electrified as part of other routes mentioned above.
- West Midlands
- West Coast Main Line routes electrified in the 1960s:
- Trent Valley line
- Stone to Colwich Line
- Rugby–Birmingham–Stafford line
- Stafford–Manchester line
- Walsall–Wolverhampton line
- Commuter lines out of Birmingham New Street:
- Cross-City Line: electrified 1993
- Chase Line: New Street to Rugeley Trent Valley completed 2017
- Manchester and North West area
- Manchester to Glossop / Hadfield (converted from the truncated 1500 V DC Manchester-Sheffield-Wath electric railway)
- Manchester to Liverpool via Earlestown line: electrified in 2015 as part of the Northern Hub project.
- Manchester, South Junction and Altrincham Railway (part was converted to Manchester Metrolink)
- Styal Line: including branch to Manchester Airport
- Manchester–Preston line: via Bolton and Chorley completed 2019
- Preston to Blackpool North: completed 2018
- 1955 Modernisation Plan
- Crewe–Manchester line: branch of the WCML, electrified in the wake of the 1955 Modernisation Plan
- Leeds area
In 1994, a project to electrify some of the local lines around Leeds was given authority to proceed. The project was called the "Leeds North West Electrification", which electrified:
- Airedale line to Skipton and Bradford Forster Square
- Wharfedale line to Ilkley
- Wakefield line electrified in 1989 as part of the East Coast Main Line electrification to London King's Cross
- In 2020 the electrification of the first part of the stalled TransPennine project, from Leeds to Dewsbury and Huddersfield, was approved and work also commenced on the York to Church Fenton section of the York to Leeds line.
- Edinburgh
- In 1991, the ECML to Edinburgh was electrified. A few local routes were also electrified.
- Edinburgh Crossrail: Edinburgh Waverley to Newcraighall. The service is by DMUs, pending reopening of part of the Waverley Route.
- North Berwick Line: Edinburgh Waverley to North Berwick
- North Berwick Line trains continue to Glasgow Central. Intercity trains from the ECML continue to Glasgow Central.
- Central Scotland
The route from Edinburgh to Glasgow via
, which mainly carry commuter services. Electric services on these lines commenced in December 2018.- Glasgow Suburban
Suburban electrification was begun during the 1960s in the wake of the BR
The Glasgow Suburban railway network can be divided into three main areas:
- North Clyde Line: also known as the "Glasgow North Electric Suburban Line", one of the first lines in Glasgow electrified in 1960 (Helensburgh Central, Balloch and Milngavie to Glasgow Queen Street (Low Level) and to Springburn and Airdrie).
- South Clyde: the Cathcart Circle Line (Glasgow Central to Newton and Neilston) was electrified on 22 May 1962.[27] The Inverclyde Line (Glasgow Central to Gourock and Wemyss Bay) was electrified in 1967.[27] The Ayrshire Coast Line (Glasgow Central to Ayr, Largs and Ardrossan Harbour) was electrified in 1986–1987.[28] The Paisley Canal line was electrified to Corkerhillfrom Glasgow Central, in late 2012 extended to Paisley.
- Argyle Line: between Dalmuir and Milngavie via Glasgow Central (Low Level) to Hamilton Circle, Larkhall, Lanark and Carstairs (via Hamilton, Motherwell or Holytown). There is also peak service to Coatbridge Central.
On the
2010s Network Rail electrification programme
In 2009, Lord Adonis was appointed Secretary of State for Transport. After a gap of more than a decade, electrification was back on the agenda and Adonis announced plans to electrify the Great Western Main Line from London to Swansea, as well as infill electrification schemes in the North West of England. In July 2012, the UK government announced £4.2 billion of new electrification schemes, all at 25 kV AC and reconfirmed schemes previously announced by Adonis. These were to be Northern Hub, Great Western Main Line, South Wales Main Line, Midland Main Line, Electric Spine, Crossrail, Gospel Oak to Barking line and West Midlands suburban lines. Rail transport in Scotland is a devolved matter for the Scottish Government but they too have pursued electrification with multiple schemes in the Central Belt. All these have been 25 kV AC also as in England and Wales. Electrification has not been without controversy with cancellations and various appearances of the Secretary of State for Transport called before the Transport Select Committee. The number of route miles electrified in these years was answered to a written question in parliament.[13]
In November 2019 the annual statistics for route miles electrified was published by the DfT and shows that 38% of the UK network is now electrified.[29]
The projects have been subject to cost overruns and delays, and on 8 November 2016 the government announced that several elements of the Great Western Main Line electrification programme would be indefinitely deferred.[30] In an attempt to mitigate and improve the cost situation the Railway Industry Association published a report in March 2019 detailing why costs had risen and suggested ways forward.[14]
However, in the new parliament after the 2019 General election, the Transport Select Committee chaired by Huw Merriman has met on a number of occasions and continued the "Trains fit for the future" enquiry theme started by the previous committee. On 23 March 2021, after many witnesses were called and written and oral evidence considered, a report was released calling for an immediate resumption of electrification in a rolling programme.[31] However, in December 2021 in a story that appeared in the Telegraph it was stated that the Treasury had declined to support the electrification programme.[32][33] Reputable peer reviewed journals state that electrification is the most relevant technology for reducing transports effect on the environment.[34]
Other systems
1,500 V DC, overhead
- Sunderland. This presents a potential problem for main-line services if routes into Sunderland or Newcastle upon Tynethat use this section were to be electrified at 25 kV AC.
Historically, there were more lines electrified at 1,500 V DC, but these have all since been either converted to 25 kV AC or closed. (see 1,500 V DC, overhead (historic))
750 V DC, overhead
Used on several tram systems:
- Edinburgh Trams
- Manchester Metrolink
- Sheffield Supertram
- Croydon Tramlink
- Nottingham Express Transit
- West Midlands Metro
Other overhead systems
- Blackpool Tramway: originally 550 V DC, in 2011 upgraded to 600 V to operate more modern rolling stock.
- The National Tramway Museum at Crich, Derbyshire uses 600 V DC. This voltage was chosen for maximum compatibility with its historic fleet of trams as well as more modern units.
- The Wirral Tramway uses 550 V DC.[35]
- The Seaton Tramway uses 120 V DC.
Existing systems - third and fourth rails
National Rail: 650 V - 750 V DC, third rail (top contact)
- Southern Electric
The extensive southern third rail electric network covers South London and the southern counties of Hampshire, West Sussex, East Sussex, Surrey and Kent and Dorset,
The
After World War II, electrification was soon resumed in the newly nationalised
During
Two lines of the Merseyrail network; the Northern line and the Wirral line use 750 V DC third rail[37][38] (see Suburban electrification of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway for its history).
The single remaining national rail line on the Isle of Wight, from Ryde Pierhead to Shanklin (with the Wroxall to Ventnor section closed), was electrified in 1967, so that former London Underground rolling stock could be used, due to the limited height of Ryde Tunnel. The Island Line used 660 V DC third rail,[39] as it was a cheaper option to convert the LUL stock into third rail, and implement third rail only on the line. The rolling stock currently used is British Rail Class 484s (D-Train). The line was upgraded to a 750 V DC third rail system in 2021 to allow Class 484 units to be used.[40]
- Euston to Watford Junction (Watford DC line).
- Richmond to Stratford (North London line). 750 V DC third rail from Richmond to Acton Central.
- St. Quintin Park & Wormwood Scrubs railway station to Clapham Junction(shared with Southern services).
- Queens Road Peckham station. Formerly, the East London Line was a much shorter London Undergroundline with fourth rail 630 V DC between Shoreditch (closed 2006) and New Cross/New Cross Gate.
See Suburban electrification of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway for Euston–Watford DC Line history.[41]
In 1970, the North London DC lines and the Class 501 EMUs used on these services were converted for third-rail operation, with the fourth rail generally being removed on sections not used by London Underground (LUL). Some fourth rail was retained in the Gunnersbury and Queens Park areas for emergency use by LUL. With the closure of Broad Street, the North London line was joined with the Stratford to North Woolwich line; this was electrified with third rail and overhead line as far as Stratford, third rail to North Woolwich. Two branches of the Watford DC line have been closed: to Rickmansworth in 1952 (to passengers, to goods in 1967) and to Croxley Green in 1996.
The Watford DC line between
A similar arrangement applies between
The Northern City Line connects the East Coast Main Line to Moorgate. It was isolated by the abandonment of the 1930s New Works Programme (and the development of the Metropolitan Green Belt). Tube services were truncated at its northern end by the Victoria line in 1964 at Drayton Park. The remainder was handed over to British Rail in 1975 in conjunction with the suburban electrification of the East Coast Main Line. The line uses third-rail DC electrification between Moorgate and Drayton Park, where trains switch to 25 kV AC overhead.
630 V DC, fourth rail (top contact)
The London Underground is a large metro system operating across Greater London and beyond, commonly known as "the Tube". Its 408-kilometre (254 mi)[43] is made up of 11 lines; electrification began during the 1890s. It was largely unified between 1900 and 1910 and nationalised in 1933, becoming the railway component of London Transport (LT). A major expansion programme (the "New Works") was launched, in which LT took over several urban branches of mainline railways.
The Underground is mostly in North London; its expansion into south London was limited by geology unfavourable to tunnelling and by the extensive main-line network, much of which was being electrified (see "Southern Electric"). The Underground uses a relatively uncommon
The surface sections use the fourth rail solely for operational consistency: the system shares track with Network Rail in several places. Where the track is shared with 750 V third-rail stock, the central rail is bonded to the running rails and the outside rail electrified at 660 V. This allows both types of train to operate satisfactorily. The suburban network of the London & North Western Railway (LNWR) was electrified in co-operation with the Underground, but during the 1970s British Rail introduced third-rail EMUs and the sections of the LNWR suburban network not used by the Underground had the fourth rail removed (see "London and North Western Railway", above).
The Underground has carried out studies to consider raising the voltage above the present 630 V nominal.[44] New equipment at their substations does allow for a future increase to a standard 750 V nominal. In addition, the electrical equipment of new trains are also based on the use of 750 V rated equipment. So, whilst new equipment is being designed to for 750 V operation, no decision to increase the voltage has yet been made public by the Underground.
750 V DC, third rail (bottom contact)
This uses bottom-contact composite third rail, with an
750 V DC, fourth rail (top contact)
- Waterloo and City line
This system is unique to this line of
600 V DC, third rail (top contact)
- Glasgow Subway, electrified in 1935
250 V DC, third rail (top contact)
- Hythe Pier Railway, electrified in 1922
110 V DC, third rail (top contact)
- Volk's Electric Railway was originally electrified at 50 V DC, raised to 160 V in 1884 and reduced to 110 V DC during the 1980s.
100 V DC, four rail
- The elevated "monorail" at the National Motor Museum, Beaulieu uses rubber tyres running on two metal tracks, one on either side of the central guide. Because it is rubber-tyred, it requires two current conductors and two collectors (hence the four-rail designation).
Obsolete systems
Great Britain has used different electrification systems in the past. Many of these date from the early part of the 20th century, when traction electricity was in the experimental stage. This section describes each system, in order of decreasing voltage.
6,600 V, 25 Hz AC, overhead
- Lancaster to Heysham via Morecambe: Used for an early trial of electrification; opened between 13 April and 14 September 1908. In 1953, it was converted to 50 Hz, and operated until 1966.[45]
- South London Line and then extended to other commuter lines around the south of London, operational from 1 December 1909. Following the grouping into the LBSCR into the Southern Railwayin 1922, all of the 6,600 V lines were converted to the 650 V DC third rail system by September 1929.
6,250 V 50 Hz AC, overhead
During the initial electrification of parts of the network to 25 kV 50 Hz AC overhead, the initial solution to the limited clearance problems in suburban areas (due to numerous tunnels and bridges) in London and Glasgow was to use the lower voltage of 6.25 kV. Later technological improvements in insulation allowed these areas to be converted to 25 kV. The last sections of 6.25 kV were converted during the 1980s.
- London, Tilbury and Southend Lines
The 6.25 kV section was from
- Great Eastern Lines
The line from
The Cambridge line and branches from Liverpool Street was electrified in the early 1960s, with 6.25 kV out to a changeover at Cheshunt, and 25 kV beyond. The Chingford and Enfield lines were thus at 6.25 kV throughout. This route was again fully converted to 25 kV in the early 1980s.
As part of the electrification onwards to Cambridge and Norwich in the 1980s, electric locomotives were transferred to these routes from the West Coast route. These locomotives would not have been able to operate at 6.25 kV.
- Glasgow Suburban network
On the North Clyde, the central section between Parkhead and before Dalmuir (Clydebank loop) and Westerton (Anniesland loop) were at 6.25 kV, with the outer sections at 25 kV. The Bridgeton and Springburn branches were thus at 6.25 kV throughout. The sections electrified at 6.25 kV were converted to 25 kV during the early 1980s.
On the South Clyde, the route from Glasgow Central around the Cathcart Loop was initially at 6.25 kV, with changeovers to 25 kV at Kings Park and Muirend on the Motherwell and Neilston routes. These lines were progressively converted to 25 kV in the 1970s-80s.
3,500 V DC, overhead
- Bury to Holcombe Brook
This was electrified by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway in 1913 as part of a trial system for export. The system was converted to third rail in 1918 (see below).[47]
1,500 V DC, overhead (historic)
After World War I, the UK Government set up a committee to investigate the various systems of railway electrification; in 1921, it recommended that 1,500 V DC overhead should be the future national standard.
A joint LMS and LNER scheme, it opened on 11 May 1931. The success of this scheme influenced LNER's later electrification schemes. The line was converted to 25 kV AC in 1971, but the stretch between Altrincham and Trafford Bar (plus the stretch between Trafford Bar and the Cornbrook viaduct) were later incorporated into Manchester Metrolink and converted again (this time to 750 V DC).[48]
Known as the
- Shenfield Metro
The LNER decided to electrify the
- Shildon to Newport
This line ran from Shildon (County Durham) to Newport (near Middlesbrough). The route was initially over the 1825 Stockton-to-Darlington line, then via Simpasture Junction (the former Clarence railway) through Carlton, Carlton Junction to Carlton South Junction, Bowesfield West Junction to Bowesfield Junction, through Thornaby and ending at Erimus Yard (Newport East). In the wake of the electrification of Tyneside by the NER, this coal-carrying line was electrified between 1 July 1915 and 1 January 1916 as a planned precursor to electrifying NER's busy York to Newcastle main line (part of the East Coast Main Line). The LNER removed this electrification system in 1935 (between 7 January and 8 July); the decline in the coal market making it economically unfeasible to undertake the significant renewals required to continue electric operation. The locomotives were stored for other electrified routes.[51][52][53]
1,200 V DC, third rail (side-contact)
In 1916, the line between Manchester Victoria and Bury was electrified using 1,200 V DC third rail (side contact). The line between Bury and Holcombe Brook which had been electrified using 3,500 V DC overhead in 1913 was converted to this system in 1918. It was abandoned in 1991, when the line was converted to a 750 V DC system and became part of the Manchester Metrolink.[54][55]
650 V DC, overhead
600 V DC, third rail
This was electrified in 1904, in response to extensive competition from new electric trams. The concept was a success for the
525 V DC, third rail
The Liverpool Overhead Railway was one of the earliest electric railways in Great Britain. The first section, between Alexandra Dock and Herculaneum Dock, was opened in 1893. The line connected with Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway's North Mersey Branch. It was never nationalised, and closed on 30 December 1956 due to extensive corrosion throughout its iron infrastructure (which was deemed uneconomical to replace).
500 V DC, overhead
500 V DC, third rail
The City and South London Railway electrification was unusual (compared with later schemes) in that it used a three-wire DC system. This meant that, although the offset centre third rail was electrified at +500 volts in the northbound tunnel, it was electrified at -500 volts in the southbound tunnel. The motors on the locomotives and the incandescent electric lamps in the carriages worked, regardless of the polarity of the supply. The three-wire system was adopted because the initial system was fed directly from the dynamos in the surface power plant at the Stockwell end of the line. It was important to minimise the voltage drop as much as possible, bearing in mind the rather steep gradient on the approach to King William Street Station.
440 V DC, third rail
Underground railway under London operated by the Post Office. Operated between 1927 and closure in 2003. Partially re-opened as a tourist attraction in 2017.
See also
- British electric multiple units
- Campaign to Electrify Britain's Railways
- History of rail transport in Great Britain
- List of British electric locomotives
References
- Office of Rail & Road19 October 2023
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- ISBN 0-7110-0008-5.
- ^ Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Society Archived 12 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "The Manchester South Junction & Altrincham (BR Class 505) Stock". The London & North Eastern Railway (LNER) Encyclopedia. 2007. Retrieved 17 January 2007.
- ^ "Woodhead Railway and its Electrification". Wortley Top Forge Industrial Museum. 2007. Archived from the original on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 14 April 2007.
- ^ "The Liverpool Street to Shenfield Route AM6 (Class 306) Stock". The London & North Eastern Railway (LNER) Encyclopedia. 2007. Retrieved 17 January 2007.
- ^ Williams, Stephen (November–December 1985). "The Newport - Shildon Electrification of the North-Eastern Railway" (PDF). Electric Railway Society Journal. 30 (180). Electric Railway Society.
- ^ "NER locomotive 3 to 12". Desertrailways.tripod.com. Retrieved 17 November 2010.
- ^ "Locomotive history - NER Bo+Bos". Thewoodheadsite.org.uk. Retrieved 17 November 2010.
- ^ Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Society - History - P14 Archived 15 July 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Society - History - P15 Archived 17 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "The NER Tyneside Electric Multiple Units". The London & North Eastern Railway (LNER) Encyclopedia. 2007. Retrieved 17 January 2007.
- ^ "The LNER Tyneside Electric Multiple Units". The London & North Eastern Railway (LNER) Encyclopedia. 2007. Retrieved 17 January 2007.
Further reading
525 V DC, third rail
- Box, Charles E. (1959). Liverpool Overhead Railway. Railway World Ltd.
- Gahan, John W. (1992). Seventeen stations to Dingle - The Liverpool Overhead Railway remembered. Countyvise and Avon-Anglia. ISBN 0-907768-20-2.
- Bolger, Paul (1992). The Docker's Umbrella - A History of Liverpool Overhead Railway. The Bluecoat Press. ISBN 1-872568-05-X.
- Jarvis, Adrian (1996). Portrait of the Liverpool Overhead Railway. Ian Allan. ISBN 0-7110-2468-5.
630 V DC, fourth rail
- Glover, John (2003). London's Underground (10th ed.). Ian Allan. ISBN 0-7110-2935-0.
650 V DC, third rail
- Maund, T.B. (2001). Merseyrail Electrics - The Inside Story. NBC Books. OL 18942031M.
750 V DC, third rail
- Moody, G.T. (1979). Southern Electric 1909-1979. Ian Allan. ISBN 0-7110-0924-4.
- Glover, John (2001). Southern Electric. Ian Allan. ISBN 0-7110-2807-9.
1,500 V DC, overhead
- Appleby, K.C. (1990). Shildon - Newport in Retrospect. Lincoln: Railway Correspondence and Travel Society. ISBN 0-901115-67-3.
- Dixon, Frank (1994). The Manchester South Junction & Altrincham Railway. The Oakwood Press. ISBN 0-85361-454-7.
6.6 kV 25 Hz AC, overhead
- Goslin, Geoff (2002). London's Elevated Electric Railway - The LBSCR Suburban Overhead Electrification 1909-1929. Connor & Butler Ltd. ISBN 978-0-947699-35-2.
25 kV 50 Hz AC, overhead
- Nock, O.S. (1966). Britain's New Railway. Ian Allan.
- Nock, O.S. (1974). Electric Euston to Glasgow. Ian Allan. ISBN 0-7110-0530-3.
- Boocock, Colin (1991). East Coast Electrification. Ian Allan. ISBN 0-7110-1979-7.
- Semmens, Peter (1991). Electrifying the East Coast Route. Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 0-85059-929-6.
- "On board with electrification". Permanent Way Institution Journal. 139 (1). January 2021. ISSN 2057-2425– via PWI.
- Glover, John (2003). Eastern Electric. Ian Allan. ISBN 0-7110-2934-2.
- Keenor, Garry. Overhead Line Electrification for Railways.
- "Network Rail A Guide to Overhead Electrification Revision 10" (PDF). Network Rail. February 2015.