Saxons

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Saxones
)
"Saxon" redirects here. For other uses, see Saxon (disambiguation).

Saxons
Sahson
England)
Languages
Old Saxon, Old English
Religion
Originally Germanic and Anglo-Saxon paganism, later Christianity
Related ethnic groups
Anglo-Saxons, Angles, Frisii, Jutes

The Saxons

Northern Albingia. This general area is close to the probable homeland of the Angles.[5]

During the eighth and ninth centuries the Saxons of Old Saxony were in continual conflict with the

Merovingian
period of the fifth and sixth centuries.

Charles Martel, Duke and prince of the Franks and Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, the grandfather of Charlemagne, had fought and led numerous campaigns against the Saxons.

In contrast, the English Saxons, today referred to in English as

Thames were based on late Roman military fashions, but later immigrants north of the Thames showed a stronger North German influence.[6][7] The term "Anglo-Saxon", combining the names of the Angles and the Saxons, came into use by the eighth century (for example Paul the Deacon) to distinguish the Germanic inhabitants of Britain from continental Saxons (referred to in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
as Ealdseaxe, 'old Saxons'), but both the Saxons of Britain and those of Old Saxony (Northern Germany) continued to be referred to as 'Saxons' in an indiscriminate manner, especially in the languages of Britain and Ireland.

Although the English Saxons were no longer raiders, the political history of the continental Saxons is unclear until the time of the conflict between their semi-legendary hero Widukind and the Frankish emperor Charlemagne. The continental Saxons are no longer a distinctive ethnic group or country but their name lives on in the names of several regions and states of Germany, including Lower Saxony (which includes central parts of the original Saxon homeland known as Old Saxony), Saxony in Upper Saxony, as well as Saxony-Anhalt (which includes Old, Lower and Upper Saxon regions).

Etymology

The remains of a seax together with a reconstructed replica

The name of the Saxons may derive from a kind of knife associated with the

ethnos; such a knife has the name seax in Old English, Sax in German, sachs in Old High German, and sax in Old Norse.[8][9] The seax has had a lasting symbolic impact in the English counties of Essex and Middlesex, both of which feature three seaxes in their ceremonial emblem. The names of these counties, along with the names "Sussex" and "Wessex
", contain a remnant of the root of the word "Saxon".

The Elizabethan-era play Edmund Ironside suggests that the name "Saxon" derives from the Latin saxa (stones; singular form: saxum):[10]

Their names discover what their natures are, More hard than stones, and yet not stones indeed.

— I.i.181-2

Saxon as a demonym

Celtic languages

In the

racially pejorative term for an English person and, traditionally, to the English-speaking lowlanders of Scotland.[12] The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) gives 1771 as the date of the earliest written use of the word in English. The Gaelic name for England is Sasann (older spelling: Sasunn, genitive: Sasainn), and Sasannach (formed with a common adjective suffix -ach[13]
) means "English" in reference to people and things, though not when naming the English language, which is Béarla.

Sasanach, the Irish word for an Englishman (with Sasana meaning England), has the same derivation, as do the words used in Welsh to describe the English people (Saeson, singular Sais) and the language and things English in general: Saesneg and Seisnig.

Cornish terms the English Sawsnek, from the same derivation. In the 16th century Cornish-speakers used the phrase Meea navidna cowza sawzneck to feign ignorance of the English language.[14] The Cornish words for the English people and England are Sowsnek and Pow Sows ('Land [Pays] of Saxons'). Similarly Breton, spoken in north-western France, has saoz(on) ('English'), saozneg ('the English language'), and Bro-saoz for 'England'.

Romance languages

The label "Saxons" (in Romanian: Sași) also became attached to German settlers who settled during the 12th century in southeastern Transylvania.[15] From Transylvania, some of these Saxons migrated to neighbouring Moldavia, as the name of the town Sascut, in present-day Romania, shows.

Non-Indo-European languages

The Finns and Estonians have changed their usage of the root Saxon over the centuries to apply now to the whole country of Germany (Saksa and Saksamaa respectively) and the Germans (saksalaiset and sakslased, respectively). The Finnish word sakset (scissors) reflects the name of the old Saxon single-edged sword – seax – from which the name "Saxon" supposedly derives.[16] In Estonian, saks means colloquially, "a wealthy person". As a result of Northern Crusades, Estonia's upper class comprised mostly Baltic Germans, persons of supposedly Saxon origin until well into the 20th century.

Related personal names

The word survives as the surnames of Saß / Sass (in Low German or Low Saxon), Sachse and Sachs. The Dutch female given name, Saskia, originally meant 'a Saxon woman' (metathesis of Saxia).

Saxony as a toponym

Following the downfall of

Federal Republic of Germany: note the names of the federal states of Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt
.

History

Early history

Map of the Roman Empire and contemporary indigenous Europe in 125 AD, showing the location of the Saxons in Northern Germany
Gallo-Roman rump state), Odoacer (Germanic king of Italy), and (Julius) Nepos (nominally the last Western Roman emperor, de facto ruler of Dalmatia
).
Possible locations of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes before their migration to Britain.

Aviones. According to this theory, "Saxones" was the result of later scribes trying to correct a name that meant nothing to them.[18] On the other hand, Schütte, in his analysis of such problems in Ptolemy's Maps of Northern Europe, believed that "Saxones" is correct. He notes that the loss of first letters occurs in numerous places in various copies of Ptolemy's work, and also that the manuscripts without "Saxones" are generally inferior overall.[19]

Schütte remarks that there was a medieval tradition of calling this area "Old Saxony" (covering Westphalia, Angria and Eastphalia).

river Lippe (Westphalia, northeastern part of modern German state Nordrhein-Westfalen).[21]

The first undisputed mention of the Saxon name in its modern form is from AD 356, when

Toxandria, supported by Julian.[22]

Both in this case and in others the Saxons were associated with using boats for their raids. In order to defend against Saxon raiders, the Romans created a military district called the Litus Saxonicum ("Saxon Shore") on both sides of the English Channel.

In 441–442 AD, Saxons are mentioned for the first time as inhabitants of Britain, when an unknown Gaulish historian wrote: "The British provinces (...) have been reduced to Saxon rule".[23]

Saxons as inhabitants of present-day

Thuringians
frequently appeared as allies of the Saxons.

Netherlands

In the Netherlands, Saxons occupied the territory south of the

Guelders
.

The local language, although strongly influenced by standard Dutch, is still officially recognised as Dutch Low Saxon.

Italy and Provence

In 569, some Saxons accompanied the

Gallo-Roman general Mummolus. When the Saxons regrouped, a peace treaty was negotiated whereby the Italian Saxons were allowed to settle with their families in Austrasia.[25] Gathering their families and belongings in Italy, they returned to Provence in two groups in 573. One group proceeded by way of Nice and another via Embrun, joining up at Avignon. They plundered the territory and were as a consequence stopped from crossing the Rhône
by Mummolus. They were forced to pay compensation for what they had robbed before they could enter Austrasia. These people are known only by documents, and their settlement cannot be compared to the archeological artifacts and remains that attest to Saxon settlements in northern and western Gaul.

Gaul

See also:
Saxon shore

A Saxon king named Eadwacer conquered Angers in 463, to be dislodged by Childeric I and the Salian Franks, allies of the Roman Empire.[26] It is possible that Saxon settlement of Great Britain began in response to expanding Frankish control of the Channel coast.[27]

Some Saxons already lived along the Saxon shore of Gaul as Roman

Gaulish god Grannos.[29] This location is closer to Bayeux, where Gregory of Tours evokes otherwise the Saxones Bajocassini (Bessin Saxons), which were ineffective against the Breton Waroch II in 579.[30][31]

A Saxon unit of

Vasconia.[34]

In 843 and 846 under king Charles the Bald, other official documents mention a pagus called Otlinga Saxonia in the Bessin region, but the meaning of Otlinga is unclear. Different Bessin toponyms were identified as typically Saxon, ex : Cottun (Coltun 1035–1037 ; Cola's "town"). It is the only place name in Normandy that can be interpreted as a -tun one (English -ton; cf. Colton).[35] In contrast to this one example in Normandy are numerous -thun villages in the north of France, in Boulonnais, for example Alincthun, Verlincthun, and Pelingthun,[36] showing, with other toponyms, an important Saxon or Anglo-Saxon settlement. Comparing the concentration of -ham/-hem (Anglo-Saxon hām > home) toponyms in the Bessin and in the Boulonnais gives more examples of Saxon settlement.[37] In the area known today as Normandy, the -ham cases of Bessin are unique – they do not exist elsewhere. Other cases were considered, but there is no determining example. For example, Canehan (Kenehan 1030/Canaan 1030–1035) could be the biblical name Canaan[38] or Airan (Heidram 9th century), the Germanic masculine name Hairammus.[39]

The Bessin examples are clear; for example,

Huppain (*Hubbehain ; Hubba's "home"), and Surrain (Surrehain 11th century). Another significant example can be found in the Norman onomastics: the widespread surname Lecesne,[41] with variant spellings: Le Cesne, Lesène, Lecène, and Cesne. It comes from Gallo-Romance *SAXINU "the Saxon", which is saisne in Old French. These examples are not derived from more recent Anglo-Scandinavian toponyms, because in that case they would have been numerous in the Norman regions (pays de Caux, Basse-Seine, North-Cotentin) settled by Germanic peoples.[clarification needed
] That is not the case, nor does Bessin belong to the pagii, which were affected by an important wave of Anglo-Scandinavian immigration.

In addition, archaeological finds add evidence to the documents and the results of toponymic research. Around the city of Caen and in the Bessin (Vierville-sur-Mer, Bénouville, Giverville, Hérouvillette), excavations have yielded numerous examples of Anglo-Saxon jewellery, design elements, settings, and weapons. All of these things were discovered in cemeteries in a context of the fifth, sixth and seventh centuries AD.[42][43]

The oldest Saxon site found in France to date is Vron, in Picardy. Archaeologists excavated a large cemetery with tombs dating from the Roman Empire until the sixth century. Furniture and other grave goods, as well as the human remains, revealed a group of people buried in the fourth and fifth centuries AD. Physically different from the usual local inhabitants found before this period, they instead resembled the Germanic populations of the north. Starting around 375 AD the burials are located in the region known in Roman times as the Saxon Shores. 92% of these burials were inhumations, and sometimes included weapons of typical Germanic type. Starting from around 440 AD the burial ground displaced eastward. The burials were now arranged in rows and displayed a strong Anglo-Saxon influence until around 520 AD, when this influence subsided. Archaeological material, neighbouring toponymy, and historical accounts support the conclusion of settlement of Saxon foederati with their families on the shores of the English Channel. Further anthropological research by Joël Blondiaux shows these people were from Lower Saxony.[44]

Saxons in Britain

Alfred the Great
Further information: Sub-Roman Britain and Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain

Saxons, along with Angles, Frisians and Jutes, invaded the island of Great Britain (Britannia) around the time of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Saxon raiders had been harassing the eastern and southern shores of Britannia for centuries before, prompting the construction of the Saxon Shore forts. Before the end of Roman rule in Britannia, many Saxons and other folk had been permitted to settle in these areas as farmers.

According to tradition, the Saxons (and other tribes) first entered Britain en masse as part of an agreement to protect the indigenous

mercenaries
. According to Bede, Hengist manipulated Vortigern into granting more land and allowing for more settlers to come in, paving the way for the Germanic settlement of Britain.

Historians are divided about what followed: some argue that the takeover of southern Great Britain by the Anglo-Saxons was peaceful.[45] The known account from a native Briton who lived in the mid-5th century AD, Gildas, described events as a forced takeover by armed attack:

For the fire (...) spread from sea to sea, fed by the hands of our foes in the east, and did not cease, until, destroying the neighbouring towns and lands, it reached the other side of the island, and dipped its red and savage tongue in the western ocean. In these assaults (...) all the columns were levelled with the ground by the frequent strokes of the battering-ram, all the husbandmen routed, together with their bishops, priests and people, whilst the sword gleamed, and the flames crackled around them on every side. Lamentable to behold, in the midst of the streets lay the tops of lofty towers, tumbled to the ground, stones of high walls, holy altars, fragments of human bodies, covered with livid clots of coagulated blood, looking as if they had been squeezed together in a press; and with no chance of being buried, save in the ruins of the houses, or in the ravening bellies of wild beasts and birds; with reverence be it spoken for their blessed souls, if, indeed, there were many found who were carried, at that time, into the high heaven by the holy angels... Some, therefore, of the miserable remnant, being taken in the mountains, were murdered in great numbers; others, constrained by famine, came and yielded themselves to be slaves for ever to their foes, running the risk of being instantly slain, which truly was the greatest favour that could be offered them: some others passed beyond the seas with loud lamentations instead of the voice of exhortation (...) Others, committing the safeguard of their lives, which were in continual jeopardy, to the mountains, precipices, thickly wooded forests and to the rocks of the seas (albeit with trembling hearts), remained still in their country.

Gildas described how the Saxons were later slaughtered at the battle of

Mons Badonicus 44 years before he wrote his history, and their conquest of Britain halted. The eighth-century English historian Bede
tells how their advance resumed thereafter. He said this resulted in a swift overrunning of the entirety of South-Eastern Britain, and the foundation of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

Four separate Saxon realms emerged:

  1. East Saxons: created the Kingdom of Essex.
  2. Middle Saxons: created the province of Middlesex
  3. South Saxons: led by
    Aelle, created the Kingdom of Sussex
  4. West Saxons: created the
    Kingdom of Wessex

During the period of the reigns from

Viking
invasions. King Athelstan achieved union and Bretwalda in 927.

Later Saxons in Germany

Ems, Eider and Elbe

The continental Saxons living in what was known as Old Saxony (c. 531–804) appear to have become consolidated by the end of the eighth century. After subjugation by the Emperor Charlemagne, a political entity called the Duchy of Saxony (804–1296) appeared, covering Westphalia, Eastphalia, Angria and Nordalbingia (Holstein, southern part of modern-day Schleswig-Holstein state).

The Saxons long resisted becoming

Deutz on the Rhine and plundered along the river. This was an oft-repeated pattern when Charlemagne was distracted by other matters.[47]
They were conquered by Charlemagne in a long series of annual campaigns, the
Abotrites. Einhard
, Charlemagne's biographer, says on the closing of this grand conflict:

The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms offered by the king; which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith and religion, and union with the Franks to form one people.

Under

Frederick Barbarossa, into war in Lombardy
.

During the

March of Meissen. The rulers of Meissen acquired control of the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg (only a remnant of the previous Duchy) in 1423; they eventually applied the name Saxony to the whole of their kingdom. Since then, this part of eastern Germany has been referred to as Saxony (German: Sachsen), a source of some misunderstanding about the original homeland of the Saxons, with a central part in the present-day German state of Lower Saxony
(German: Niedersachsen).

Culture

Social structure

Gaue. Each Gau had its own satrap with enough military power to level whole villages that opposed him.[48]

In the mid-9th century,

aetheling), frilingi and lazzi. These terms were subsequently Latinised as nobiles or nobiliores; ingenui, ingenuiles or liberi; and liberti, liti or serviles.[49] According to very early traditions that are presumed to contain a good deal of historical truth, the edhilingui were the descendants of the Saxons who led the tribe out of Holstein and during the migrations of the sixth century.[49]
They were a conquering warrior elite. The frilingi represented the descendants of the amicii, auxiliarii and manumissi of that caste. The lazzi represented the descendants of the original inhabitants of the conquered territories, who were forced to make oaths of submission and pay tribute to the edhilingui.

The

solidi, or about 700 head of cattle, the highest wergild on the continent; the price of a bride was also very high. This was six times as much as that of the frilingi and eight times as much as the lazzi. The gulf between noble and ignoble was very large, but the difference between a freeman and an indentured labourer was small.[50]

According to the Vita Lebuini antiqua, an important source for early Saxon history, the Saxons held an annual council at Marklo (Westphalia) where they "confirmed their laws, gave judgment on outstanding cases, and determined by common counsel whether they would go to war or be in peace that year."[48] All three castes participated in the general council; twelve representatives from each caste were sent from each Gau. In 782, Charlemagne abolished the system of Gaue and replaced it with the Grafschaftsverfassung, the system of counties typical of Francia.[51] By prohibiting the Marklo councils, Charlemagne pushed the frilingi and lazzi out of political power. The old Saxon system of Abgabengrundherrschaft, lordship based on dues and taxes, was replaced by a form of feudalism based on service and labour, personal relationships and oaths.[52]

Religion

Germanic religion

See also: Continental Germanic mythology

Saxon religious practices were closely related to their political practices. The annual councils of the entire tribe began with invocations of the gods. The procedure by which dukes were elected in wartime, by drawing lots, is presumed to have had religious significance, i.e. in giving trust to divine providence – it seems – to guide the random decision making.[53] There were also sacred rituals and objects, such as the pillars called Irminsul; these were believed to connect heaven and earth, as with other examples of trees or ladders to heaven in numerous religions. Charlemagne had one such pillar chopped down in 772 close to the Eresburg stronghold.

Early Saxon religious practices in Britain can be gleaned from place names and the

Hretha" and "month of Ēostre." It is presumed that these are the names of two goddesses who were worshipped around that season.[54] The Saxons offered cakes to their gods in February (Solmōnaþ). There was a religious festival associated with the harvest, Halegmōnaþ ("holy month" or "month of offerings", September).[55] The Saxon calendar began on 25 December, and the months of December and January were called Yule
(or Giuli). They contained a Modra niht or "night of the mothers", another religious festival of unknown content.

The Saxon freemen and servile class remained faithful to their original beliefs long after their nominal conversion to Christianity. Nursing a hatred of the upper class, which, with Frankish assistance, had marginalised them from political power, the lower classes (the plebeium vulgus or cives) were a problem for Christian authorities as late as 836. The Translatio S. Liborii remarks on their obstinacy in pagan ritus et superstitio (usage and superstition).[56]

Christianity

1868 illustration of Augustine addressing the Saxons

The conversion of the Saxons in England from their original

Saeberht, was converted early and a diocese was established at London. Its first bishop, Mellitus, was expelled by Saeberht's heirs. The conversion of the East Saxons was completed under Cedd
in the 650s and 660s.

The continental Saxons were evangelised largely by English missionaries in the late seventh and early eighth centuries. Around 695, two early English missionaries,

Saint Lebuin, an Englishman who between 745 and 770 preached to the Saxons, mainly in the eastern Netherlands, built a church and made many friends among the nobility. Some of them rallied to save him from an angry mob at the annual council at Marklo (near river Weser, Bremen). Social tensions arose between the Christianity-sympathetic noblemen and the pagan lower castes, who were staunchly faithful to their traditional religion.[58]

Under Charlemagne, the

Alcuin of York
to his friend Meginfrid, written in 796, shows:

If the light yoke and sweet burden of Christ were to be preached to the most obstinate people of the Saxons with as much determination as the payment of tithes has been exacted, or as the force of the legal decree has been applied for fault of the most trifling sort imaginable, perhaps they would not be averse to their baptismal vows.[59]

Charlemagne's successor,

Roman Catholic Church.[61] The Poeta Saxo
, in his verse Annales of Charlemagne's reign (written between 888 and 891), laid an emphasis on his conquest of Saxony. He celebrated the Frankish monarch as on par with the Roman emperors and as the bringer of Christian salvation to people. References are made to periodic outbreaks of pagan worship, especially of Freya, among the Saxon peasantry as late as the 12th century.

Christian literature

In the ninth century, the Saxon nobility became vigorous supporters of

Gottschalk and Rabanus Maurus.[62]

From an early date, Charlemagne and Louis the Pious supported Christian vernacular works in order to evangelise the Saxons more efficiently. The Heliand, a verse epic of the life of Christ in a Germanic setting, and Genesis, another epic retelling of the events of the first book of the Bible, were commissioned in the early ninth century by Louis to disseminate scriptural knowledge to the masses. A council of Tours in 813 and then a synod of Mainz in 848 both declared that homilies ought to be preached in the vernacular. The earliest preserved text in the Saxon language is a baptismal vow from the late eighth or early ninth century; the vernacular was used extensively in an effort to Christianise the lowest castes of Saxon society.[63]

See also

  • List of Germanic tribes

Notes

  1. Low German: Sassen, Dutch
    : Saksen)
  2. ^
    • ISBN 9780191735257
      . Retrieved 26 January 2020. Saxons, a Germanic tribe...
    • Buchberger, Erica; Loseby, Simon (2018). "Saxons". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity.
      ISBN 9780191744457
      . Retrieved 26 January 2020. Saxons. A Germanic people located primarily in modern north-west Germany...
    • ISBN 9780191727139
      . Saxons. Germanic people whose homeland was in the north German coastal plain...
    • Kerr, Anne; Wright, Edmund, eds. (2015). "Saxons". A Dictionary of World History (3 ed.).
      ISBN 9780191765728
      . Retrieved 26 January 2020. Germanic tribes, possibly named from their single-edged seax ('sword').
  3. ^ (Springer 2004, p. 12): "Unter dem alten Sachsen ist das Gebiet zu verstehen, das seit der Zeit Karls des Großen (reg. 768–814) bis zum Jahre 1180 also Saxonia '(das Land) Sachsen' bezeichnet wurde oder wenigstens so genannt werden konnte."
  4. ^ (Springer 2004, p. 2004): "Im Latein des späten Altertums konnte Saxones als Sammelbezeichnung von Küstenräubern gebraucht werden. Es spielte dieselbe Rolle wie viele Jahrhunderte später das Wort Wikinger."
  5. ^ (Springer 2004, p. 2004)
  6. ^ Halsall, Guy, Barbarian Migration and the Roman West 376–568, pp. 386–392
  7. ISBN 978-0-431-10209-2
    .
  8. ^ "Saxon | Definition of Saxon in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries | English. Retrieved 10 March 2019.[dead link]
  9. ^ "sax". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  10. ^ "New times and old stories". Literary Appropriations of the Anglo-Saxons. p. 111 fn 14.
  11. ^ "Definition of SASSENACH". Merriam-Webster, Inc. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
  12. ^ Scott, Walter. 'The Lady of the Lake'. 1871. T. Nelson and sons.
  13. ^ "Sassenach". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  14. ^ Richard Carew, Survey of Cornwall, 1602. N.B. in revived Cornish, this would be transcribed, My ny vynnaf cows sowsnek. The Cornish word Emit meaning 'ant' (and perversely derived from Old English) is more commonly used in Cornwall as of 2015 as slang to designate non-Cornish Englishmen.
  15. ^ Magazin Istoric (5 September 2013). "Saşii – Saxonii Transilvaniei". Politeia (in Romanian).
  16. ^ Suomen sanojen alkuperä. Etymologinen sanakirja, R-Ö. Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura, Kotimaisten kielten tutkimuskeskus. 2012. p. 146.
  17. ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Saxony" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  18. ISBN 978-1-84383-026-9
  19. ^ Schütte, page 22–23.
  20. ^ Schütte page 64.
  21. ISBN 9789077922736
  22. ISBN 9780415063746
  23. ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0
    .
  24. ^ Bachrach, p. 39.
  25. ^ Bachrach, p.39.
  26. ^ Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, Penguin 1974.
  27. ^ Stenton, 12.
  28. ^ François de Beaurepaire, Les noms des communes et anciennes paroisses de la Manche, éditions Picard 1986. p. 125 –127.
  29. ISBN 9782735500468
    .
  30. O. M. Dalton
    , Clarendon Press 1967.
  31. ^ Bachrach, 52.
  32. ^ Bachrach, 10.
  33. ^ Bachrach, 63.
  34. Fredegar
    , IV.54, p. 66.
  35. ^ Albert Dauzat and Charles Rostaing, Dictionnaire étymologique des noms de lieux en France, Librairie Guénégaud 1979. p. 215.
  36. ^ Dauzat and Rostaing, DENL.
  37. ^ Louis Guinet, Les emprunts gallo-romans au germanique (du Ier à la fin du Vème siècle), éditions Klincksieck 1982.
  38. ^ François de Beaurepaire, Les noms des communes et anciennes paroisses de la Seine-Maritime, éditions Picard 1979. p. 56.
  39. ^ René Lepelley, Dictionnaire étymologique des noms de communes de Normandie, Charles Corlet / Presses universitaires de Caen. p. 46.
  40. ^ fr:Ernest Nègre, fr:Toponymie générale de la France, Volume II, Librairie Droz. p. 1008.
  41. ^ "Répartition des LECESNE entre 1891 et 1915" (in French).
  42. ^ Quelques témoignages de le présence Anglo-Saxonne dans le Calvados, Basse-Normandie (Christian Pilet), in Frühmittelalterliche Studien (1979), Berlin, New York (Walter de Gruyter) 2009.
  43. ^ Des Saxons en Basse-Normandie au VIe siècle ? A propos de quelques découvertes archéologiques faîtes récemment dans la basse vallée de l'Orne (C. Lorren) in Studien zur Sachsenforschung 2, 1980.
  44. ^ C. Seillier, La Présence germanique en Gaule du Nord au Bas-Empire, Revue du Nord, 1995, n° 77.
  45. ^ "Anglo-Saxons – Peaceful or Barbaric?". Medieval Histories. 28 August 2014. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
  46. Saints Ewald
    .
  47. ^
    ISBN 978-1-4422-1395-1
    .
  48. ^ a b Goldberg, 473.
  49. ^ a b Goldberg, 471.
  50. ^ Goldberg, 472.
  51. ^ Goldberg, 476.
  52. ^ Goldberg, 479.
  53. ^ a b Goldberg, 474.
  54. ^ a b Stenton, 97–98.
  55. ^ Stenton.
  56. ^ Goldberg, 480.
  57. ^ Stenton, 102.
  58. ^ Goldberg.
  59. ^ Goldberg, 478.
  60. Astronomus
    .
  61. ^ Hummer, 143.
  62. ^ Goldberg, 477.
  63. ^ Hummer, 138–139.

References

External links

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