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George III's long reign was marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdom, much of the rest of Europe, and places further afield in Africa, the Americas and Asia. Early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the [[Seven Years' War]], becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of its American colonies were soon lost in the [[American Revolutionary War]], which led to the establishment of the United States. A series of wars against [[French Revolution|revolutionary]] and [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleonic]] France, over a twenty-year period, finally concluded in the defeat of Napoleon in 1815.
George III's long reign was marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdom, much of the rest of Europe, and places further afield in Africa, the Americas and Asia. Early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the [[Seven Years' War]], becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of its American colonies were soon lost in the [[American Revolutionary War]], which led to the establishment of the United States. A series of wars against [[French Revolution|revolutionary]] and [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleonic]] France, over a twenty-year period, finally concluded in the defeat of Napoleon in 1815.


In the latter half of his life, George III suffered from recurrent and, eventually, permanent [[mental illness]]. This baffled medical science at the time, although it is now generally thought that he suffered from the blood disease [[porphyria]]. Porphyria can be triggered by the poison [[arsenic]], and recent studies have shown high levels of arsenic in locks of King George's hair. After a final relapse in 1810, his eldest son, [[George IV of the United Kingdom|George, Prince of Wales]] ruled as [[Prince Regent]]. On George III's death, the Prince of Wales succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George III's life has gone through a "kaleidoscope of changing views" which have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them.<ref>Butterfield, p.9</ref>
In the latter half of his life, George III suffered from recurrent and, eventually, permanent [[mental illness]]. This baffled medical science at the time, although it is now generally thought that he suffered from the blood disease [[porphyria]]. The poison [[arsenic]] can trigger porphyria, and recent studies have shown high levels of arsenic in locks of King George's hair. After a final relapse in 1810, his eldest son, [[George IV of the United Kingdom|George, Prince of Wales]] ruled as [[Prince Regent]]. On George III's death, the Prince of Wales succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George III's life has gone through a "kaleidoscope of changing views" which have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them.<ref>Butterfield, p.9</ref>


==Early life==
==Early life==
George was born in [[London]] at [[Norfolk House]], the son of [[Frederick, Prince of Wales]], and grandson of [[George II of Great Britain|King George II]]. Prince George's mother was [[Augusta of Saxe-Gotha]]. He was baptised the same day by the Rector of St James's.<ref>Hibbert, p.8</ref> His solemn christening was by the [[Bishop of Oxford]], [[Thomas Secker]], at Norfolk House on 4 July 1738 (New Style). His godparents were [[Frederick I of Sweden|the King of Sweden]] (for whom [[Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore|Lord Baltimore]] stood proxy), [[Frederick III, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg|the Duke of Saxe-Gotha]] (for whom [[Henry Brydges, 2nd Duke of Chandos|Lord Carnarvon]] stood proxy) and his twice-paternal great-aunt, [[Sophia Dorothea of Hanover|the Queen of Prussia]] (for whom Lady Charlotte Edwin, a daughter of the late [[James Douglas, 4th Duke of Hamilton|Duke of Hamilton]], stood proxy).<ref>[http://users.uniserve.com/~canyon/christenings.htm#Christenings Yvonne's Royalty Home Page: Royal Christenings]</ref>
George was born in [[London]] at [[Norfolk House]], the son of [[Frederick, Prince of Wales]], and grandson of [[George II of Great Britain|King George II]]. Prince George's mother was [[Augusta of Saxe-Gotha]]. As Prince George was born two months premature and was thought unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by the Rector of St James's.<ref>Hibbert, p.8</ref> He was publicly baptised by the [[Bishop of Oxford]], [[Thomas Secker]], at Norfolk House on 4 July 1738 (New Style). His godparents were [[Frederick I of Sweden|the King of Sweden]] (for whom [[Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore|Lord Baltimore]] stood proxy), [[Frederick III, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg|the Duke of Saxe-Gotha]] (for whom [[Henry Brydges, 2nd Duke of Chandos|Lord Carnarvon]] stood proxy) and his twice-paternal great-aunt, [[Sophia Dorothea of Hanover|the Queen of Prussia]] (for whom Lady Charlotte Edwin, a daughter of the late [[James Douglas, 4th Duke of Hamilton|Duke of Hamilton]], stood proxy).<ref>[http://users.uniserve.com/~canyon/christenings.htm#Christenings Yvonne's Royalty Home Page: Royal Christenings]</ref>


King George II disliked the Prince of Wales, and took little interest in his grandchildren. In 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and Prince George became [[heir apparent]] to the throne. He inherited one of his father's titles and became the [[Duke of Edinburgh]]. Now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George [[Prince of Wales]].<ref>Hibbert, pp.3–15</ref> In the spring of 1756, as George approached his eighteenth birthday, the King offered him a grand establishment at [[St James's Palace]], but George refused the offer, guided by his mother and her confidante, [[John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute|Lord Bute]], who would later serve as [[Prime Minister]].<ref>Hibbert, pp.24–25</ref>
George grew into a healthy child but his grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales and took little interest in his grandchildren. However, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and Prince George became [[heir apparent]] to the throne. He inherited one of his father's titles and became the [[Duke of Edinburgh]]. Now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George [[Prince of Wales]].<ref>Hibbert, pp.3–15</ref> In the spring of 1756, as George approached his eighteenth birthday, the King offered him a grand establishment at [[St James's Palace]], but George refused the offer, guided by his mother and her confidante, [[John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute|Lord Bute]], who would later serve as [[Prime Minister]].<ref>Hibbert, pp.24–25</ref> George's mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her strict moral values.<ref>{{citation|first=John L.|last=Bullion|title=Augusta , princess of Wales (1719–1772)|journal=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2004|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/46829|accessdate= 2008-09-17|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/46829}} (Subscription required)</ref>


==Marriage==
==Marriage==
In 1759 George was smitten with [[Lady Sarah Lennox]],<ref name="dnb">{{citation|first=John |last=Cannon|title=George III (1738–1820)|journal=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=Sept 2004; online edn, Jan 2007 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10540|accessdate=2007-05-25}}</ref> daughter of the [[Charles Lennox, 2nd Duke of Richmond|Duke of Richmond]], but Lord Bute advised against the match and George abandoned his thoughts of marriage. "I am born for the happiness and misery of a great nation," he wrote, "and consequently must often act contrary to my passion." Nevertheless, attempts by the King to marry George to Sophia Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel were resisted by him and his mother.<ref>Hibbert, p.31</ref><ref>George was falsely said to have married a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakeress]] named [[Hannah Lightfoot]] on 17 April 1759, prior to his marriage to Charlotte, and to have had at least one child by her. Lightfoot had married [[Isaac Axford]] in 1753, however, and had died in or before 1759 so no legal marriage to Lightfoot could have occurred and any children she might have had would not be in the line of succession. A forged marriage certificate was impounded at the 1866 trial of the daughter of imposter Olive Wilmot, who claimed to be "[[Princess Olive]]". After being studied by the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]], it was deposited in the [[Royal Archives]].</ref>
In 1759 George was smitten with [[Lady Sarah Lennox]],<ref name="dnb">{{citation|first=John |last=Cannon|title=George III (1738–1820)|journal=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=Sept 2004; online edn, Jan 2007 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10540|accessdate=2007-05-25}}</ref> daughter of the [[Charles Lennox, 2nd Duke of Richmond|Duke of Richmond]], but Lord Bute advised against the match and George abandoned his thoughts of marriage. "I am born for the happiness and misery of a great nation," he wrote, "and consequently must often act contrary to my passion." Nevertheless, attempts by the King to marry George to Princess Sophia Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel were resisted by him and his mother.<ref>Hibbert, p.31</ref><ref>George was falsely said to have married a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakeress]] named [[Hannah Lightfoot]] on 17 April 1759, prior to his marriage to Charlotte, and to have had at least one child by her. Lightfoot had married [[Isaac Axford]] in 1753, however, and had died in or before 1759 so no legal marriage to Lightfoot could have occurred and any children she might have had would not be in the line of succession. A forged marriage certificate was impounded at the 1866 trial of the daughter of imposter Olive Wilmot, who claimed to be "[[Princess Olive]]". After being studied by the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]], it was deposited in the [[Royal Archives]].</ref>


[[Image:Daughters of King George III.jpg|thumb|left|The Three Youngest Daughters of King George III. c. 1785 Oil on canvas by [[John Singleton Copley]]]]
[[Image:Daughters of King George III.jpg|thumb|left|The Three Youngest Daughters of King George III. c. 1785 Oil on canvas by [[John Singleton Copley]]]]
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==American Revolutionary War==
==American Revolutionary War==
The [[American Revolutionary War]] began when armed conflict between British regulars and colonial militiamen broke out in [[New England]] in April 1775. After a year of fighting, in July 1776, the colonies [[United States Declaration of Independence|declared their independence]] from the Crown as "free and independent States", and listed grievances against the British King, legislature, and populace. Amongst George's other offences, the Declaration charged, "He has abdicated Government here&nbsp;... He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people." George was indignant when he learned of the opinions of the colonists. The British captured [[New York City]] in 1776, but the grand strategic plan of invading from Canada failed with the surrender of the British Lieutenant-General [[John Burgoyne]] at the [[Battle of Saratoga]]. In 1778, France (Great Britain's chief rival) signed a treaty of friendship with the newly independent American States. [[Lord North]] asked to transfer power to [[Lord Chatham]], whom he thought more capable. George, however, would hear nothing of such suggestions; he suggested that Chatham serve as a subordinate minister in Lord North's administration. Chatham refused to cooperate, and died later in the same year.<ref>Hibbert, pp.156–157</ref> Great Britain was then at war with France, and in 1779 it was also at war with Spain.
The [[American Revolutionary War]] began when armed conflict between British regulars and colonial militiamen broke out in [[New England]] in April 1775. After a year of fighting, the colonies [[United States Declaration of Independence|declared their independence]] from the Crown as "free and independent States" in July 1776, and listed grievances against the British King, legislature, and populace. Amongst George's other offences, the Declaration charged, "He has abdicated Government here&nbsp;... He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people." George was indignant when he learned of the opinions of the colonists. The British captured [[New York City]] in 1776, but the grand strategic plan of invading from Canada failed with the surrender of the British Lieutenant-General [[John Burgoyne]] at the [[Battle of Saratoga]]. In 1778, France (Great Britain's chief rival) signed a treaty of friendship with the newly independent American States. [[Lord North]] asked to transfer power to [[Lord Chatham]], whom he thought more capable. George, however, would hear nothing of such suggestions; he suggested that Chatham serve as a subordinate minister in Lord North's administration. Chatham refused to cooperate, and died later in the same year.<ref>Hibbert, pp.156–157</ref> Great Britain was then at war with France, and in 1779 it was also at war with Spain.


George III obstinately tried to keep Great Britain at war with the revolutionaries in America, despite the opinions of his own ministers. [[Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford|Lord Gower]] and [[Thomas Thynne, 1st Marquess of Bath|Lord Weymouth]] both resigned rather than suffer the indignity of being associated with the war. Lord North's opinion matched that of his ministerial colleagues, which he appears to have told George III, but stayed in office. The King was determined "never to acknowledge the independence of the Americans, and to punish their contumacy by the indefinite prolongation of a war which promised to be eternal."<ref>Trevelyan, vol.1 p.4</ref> His plan was to keep the 30,000 men garrisoned in [[New York]], [[Rhode Island]], Canada, and [[Florida]]; other forces would attack the [[French colonization of the Americas|French]] and [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish]] in the [[West Indies]]. To punish the Americans the King planned to destroy their coasting-trade, bombard their ports, sack and burn towns along the coast (like [[New London, Connecticut|New London]], [[Connecticut]]), and turn loose the [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] to attack civilians in frontier settlements. These operations, the King felt, would inspire the [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]], splinter the [[Second Continental Congress|Continental Congress]], and "keep the rebels harassed, anxious, and poor, until the day when, by a natural and inevitable process, discontent and disappointment were converted into penitence and remorse". They would beg to return to his authority.<ref>Trevelyan, vol.1 p.5</ref> The plan, however, meant destruction for the Loyalists and loyal Indians, and indefinite prolongation of a costly war, as well as the risk of disaster as the French and Spanish were assembling an [[armada]] to invade Britain and seize [[London]].
George III obstinately tried to keep Great Britain at war with the revolutionaries in America, despite the opinions of his own ministers. [[Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford|Lord Gower]] and [[Thomas Thynne, 1st Marquess of Bath|Lord Weymouth]] both resigned rather than suffer the indignity of being associated with the war. Lord North's opinion matched that of his ministerial colleagues, which he appears to have told George III, but stayed in office. The King was determined "never to acknowledge the independence of the Americans, and to punish their contumacy by the indefinite prolongation of a war which promised to be eternal."<ref>Trevelyan, vol.1 p.4</ref> His plan was to keep the 30,000 men garrisoned in [[New York]], [[Rhode Island]], Canada, and [[Florida]]; other forces would attack the [[French colonization of the Americas|French]] and [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish]] in the [[West Indies]]. To punish the Americans the King planned to destroy their coasting-trade, bombard their ports, sack and burn towns along the coast (like [[New London, Connecticut|New London]], [[Connecticut]]), and turn loose the [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] to attack civilians in frontier settlements. These operations, the King felt, would inspire the [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]], splinter the [[Second Continental Congress|Continental Congress]], and "keep the rebels harassed, anxious, and poor, until the day when, by a natural and inevitable process, discontent and disappointment were converted into penitence and remorse". They would beg to return to his authority.<ref>Trevelyan, vol.1 p.5</ref> The plan, however, meant destruction for the Loyalists and loyal Indians, and indefinite prolongation of a costly war, as well as the risk of disaster as the French and Spanish were assembling an [[armada]] to invade Britain and seize [[London]].
Line 88: Line 88:
A failed attempt to [[assassination|assassinate]] the King on 15 May 1800 was not political in origin but motivated by the [[religion|religious]] [[delusion]]s of [[James Hadfield]], who shot at the King in the [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane|Drury Lane Theatre]].
A failed attempt to [[assassination|assassinate]] the King on 15 May 1800 was not political in origin but motivated by the [[religion|religious]] [[delusion]]s of [[James Hadfield]], who shot at the King in the [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane|Drury Lane Theatre]].


A brief lull in hostilities allowed Pitt to concentrate effort on Ireland, where there had been an uprising in 1798. The British and Irish Parliaments passed the [[Act of Union 1800]], which, on 1 January 1801, united Great Britain and Ireland into a single nation, known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. George used the opportunity to drop [[English claims to the French throne|the claim to the Throne of France]], which English and British Sovereigns had maintained since the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]. It was suggested that George adopt the title "[[Emperor of the British and Hanoverian Dominions]]", but he refused. [[A. G. Stapleton]] writes that George III "felt that his true dignity consisted in his being known to Europe and the world by the appropriated and undisputed style belonging to the British Crown."
A brief lull in hostilities allowed Pitt to concentrate effort on Ireland, where there had been an uprising in 1798. The British and Irish Parliaments passed the [[Act of Union 1800]], which, on 1 January 1801, united Great Britain and Ireland into a single nation, known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. George used the opportunity to drop [[English claims to the French throne|the claim to the Throne of France]], which English and British Sovereigns had maintained since the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]. It was suggested that George adopt the title "[[Emperor of the British and Hanoverian Dominions]]", but he refused.


As part of his Irish policy, Pitt planned to remove certain legal disabilities that applied to [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]]. George III claimed that to emancipate Catholics would be to violate his coronation oath, in which Sovereigns promise to maintain Protestantism.<ref name="rh" /> The King declared,
As part of his Irish policy, Pitt planned to remove certain legal disabilities that applied to [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]]. George III claimed that to emancipate Catholics would be to violate his coronation oath, in which Sovereigns promise to maintain Protestantism.<ref name="rh" /> The King declared,

Revision as of 15:17, 29 September 2008

"George III" redirects here. For other uses, see George III (disambiguation).
George III
King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; King of Hanover; prev. King of Great Britain and Ireland; Elector of Hanover
Ernest Augustus I of Hanover
Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex
Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge
Princess Mary
Princess Sophia
Prince Octavius
Prince Alfred
Princess Amelia
Names
George William Frederick
HouseHouse of Hanover
FatherFrederick, Prince of Wales
MotherPrincess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha
SignatureGeorge III's signature

George III (George William Frederick; 4 June 1738

Brunswick-Lüneburg, and thus prince-elector of Hanover in the Holy Roman Empire, and then King of Hanover from 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, and the first of Hanover to be born in Britain and speak English as his first language.[3]

George III's long reign was marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdom, much of the rest of Europe, and places further afield in Africa, the Americas and Asia. Early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the

Napoleonic
France, over a twenty-year period, finally concluded in the defeat of Napoleon in 1815.

In the latter half of his life, George III suffered from recurrent and, eventually, permanent

Prince Regent. On George III's death, the Prince of Wales succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George III's life has gone through a "kaleidoscope of changing views" which have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them.[4]

Early life

George was born in

Duke of Hamilton, stood proxy).[6]

George grew into a healthy child but his grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales and took little interest in his grandchildren. However, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and Prince George became

Prime Minister.[8] George's mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her strict moral values.[9]

Marriage

In 1759 George was smitten with Lady Sarah Lennox,[10] daughter of the Duke of Richmond, but Lord Bute advised against the match and George abandoned his thoughts of marriage. "I am born for the happiness and misery of a great nation," he wrote, "and consequently must often act contrary to my passion." Nevertheless, attempts by the King to marry George to Princess Sophia Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel were resisted by him and his mother.[11][12]

The Three Youngest Daughters of King George III. c. 1785 Oil on canvas by John Singleton Copley

The following year, George succeeded to the Crown when his grandfather, George II, died suddenly on 25 October 1760 at the age of 76. The search for a suitable wife intensified. On 8 September 1761, the King married in the Chapel Royal, St James's Palace, Duchess Sophia Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, whom he met on their wedding day. A fortnight later, both were crowned at Westminster Abbey. George remarkably never took a mistress (in contrast with both his Hanoverian predecessors and his sons), and the couple enjoyed a genuinely happy marriage.[3][10] They had 15 children—nine sons and six daughters. In 1762, the King purchased Buckingham House (now Palace) for use as a family retreat.

Early reign

Although George's accession was at first welcomed by politicians of all parties,

Whigs as an autocrat in the manner of Charles I.[3] In May 1762, the incumbent Whig ministry of the Duke of Newcastle was replaced with one led by the Scottish Tory Lord Bute. Bute's opponents worked against him by spreading the calumny that he was having an affair with the King's mother, and by exploiting anti-Scottish prejudices amongst the English.[15] In 1763, after concluding the Peace of Paris which ended the war, Lord Bute resigned, allowing the Whigs under George Grenville to return to power. Later that year, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 placed a boundary upon the westward expansion of the American colonies. The Proclamation's goal was to force colonists to negotiate with the Native Americans, and therefore to reduce the costly frontier warfare that had erupted over land conflicts. While the Proclamation Line, as it came to be known, did not bother the majority of settled farmers, it was unpopular with a vocal minority of Americans and ultimately became another wedge between the colonists and the British government that would eventually lead to war.[16] With the American colonists generally unburdened by British taxes, the government found it increasingly difficult to pay for the defence of the colonies against native uprisings and the possibility of French incursions.[17] In 1765, Grenville introduced the Stamp Act, which levied a stamp duty on every document in the British colonies in North America. Since newspapers were printed on stamped paper, those most affected by the introduction of the duty were the most effective at producing propaganda opposing the tax.[18] Meanwhile, the King had become exasperated at Grenville's attempts to reduce the King's prerogatives, and tried, unsuccessfully, to persuade William Pitt the Elder to accept the office of Prime Minister.[19] After a brief illness, which may have presaged his illnesses to come, George settled on Lord Rockingham to form a ministry, and dismissed Grenville.[20]

Lord Rockingham, with the support of Pitt, repealed Grenville's unpopular Stamp Act, but his government was weak and he was replaced in 1766 by Pitt, whom George created

New York City.[21] Lord Chatham fell ill in 1767, allowing the Duke of Grafton to take over the government, although he did not formally become Prime Minister until 1768. His government disintegrated in 1770, allowing the Tories to return to power.[22]

The government of the new Prime Minister,

Boston mob boarded the tea ships moored in Boston Harbor and threw the tea overboard as a political protest, an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. In Britain, opinion hardened against the colonists, with Chatham now agreeing with North that the destruction of the tea was "certainly criminal".[24] Lord North introduced measures, which were called the Intolerable Acts by the colonists: the Port of Boston was shut down and the constitution of Massachusetts was altered so that the upper house of the legislature was appointed by the Crown instead of elected by the lower house.[25] Up to this point, in the words of Professor Peter Thomas, George's "hopes were centred on a political solution, and he always bowed to his cabinet's opinions even when sceptical of their success. The detailed evidence of the years from 1763 to 1775 tends to exonerate George III from any real responsibility for the American Revolution."[26]

On George's accession, the

Civil List annuity for the support of his household and the expenses of Civil Government.[27] It is claimed that George used the income to reward supporters with bribes and gifts,[28] though this is disputed by others who say such claims "rest on nothing but falsehoods put out by disgruntled opposition".[29] Debts amounting to over £3 million over the course of George's reign were paid by Parliament, and the Civil List annuity was increased from time to time.[30]

British Royalty
House of Hanover
Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent; overall an escutcheon tierced per pale and per chevron, I Gules two lions passant guardant Or, II Or a semy of hearts Gules a lion rampant Azure, III Gules a horse courant Argent, the whole inescutcheon surmounted by crown
George III
Children
George IV
Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany
William IV
Charlotte, Princess Royal and Queen of Württemberg
Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn
Princess Augusta Sophia
Elizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-Homburg
Ernest Augustus I of Hanover
Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex
Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge
Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh
Princess Sophia
Prince Octavius
Prince Alfred
Princess Amelia
Grandchildren
Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld
Princess Charlotte of Clarence
Princess Elizabeth of Clarence
Victoria
Princess Frederica of Cumberland
George V of Hanover
Prince George, Duke of Cambridge
Augusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck
Great-grandchildren
Ernest Augustus, Crown Prince of Hanover
Frederica, Baroness Alfons of Pawel-Rammingen
Princess Marie of Hanover
Great-great-grandchildren
Marie Louise, Margravine of Baden
George William, Hereditary Prince of Hanover
Alexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
Princess Olga of Hanover and Cumberland
Prince Christian of Hanover and Cumberland
Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick
Great-great-great-grandchildren
Ernest Augustus, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick
Prince George William of Hanover and Cumberland
Frederica, Queen of the Hellenes

American Revolutionary War

The

Lord Chatham, whom he thought more capable. George, however, would hear nothing of such suggestions; he suggested that Chatham serve as a subordinate minister in Lord North's administration. Chatham refused to cooperate, and died later in the same year.[31]
Great Britain was then at war with France, and in 1779 it was also at war with Spain.

George III obstinately tried to keep Great Britain at war with the revolutionaries in America, despite the opinions of his own ministers. Lord Gower and Lord Weymouth both resigned rather than suffer the indignity of being associated with the war. Lord North's opinion matched that of his ministerial colleagues, which he appears to have told George III, but stayed in office. The King was determined "never to acknowledge the independence of the Americans, and to punish their contumacy by the indefinite prolongation of a war which promised to be eternal."[32] His plan was to keep the 30,000 men garrisoned in New York, Rhode Island, Canada, and Florida; other forces would attack the French and Spanish in the West Indies. To punish the Americans the King planned to destroy their coasting-trade, bombard their ports, sack and burn towns along the coast (like New London, Connecticut), and turn loose the Indians to attack civilians in frontier settlements. These operations, the King felt, would inspire the Loyalists, splinter the Continental Congress, and "keep the rebels harassed, anxious, and poor, until the day when, by a natural and inevitable process, discontent and disappointment were converted into penitence and remorse". They would beg to return to his authority.[33] The plan, however, meant destruction for the Loyalists and loyal Indians, and indefinite prolongation of a costly war, as well as the risk of disaster as the French and Spanish were assembling an armada to invade Britain and seize London.

In 1781, the news of

American Minister to Britain in 1785, George had become resigned to the new relationship between his country and the States. He told Adams, "I was the last to consent to the separation; but I would be the first to meet the friendship of the United States as an independent power."[35]

Constitutional struggle

With the collapse of Lord North's ministry in 1782, the Whig Lord Rockingham became Prime Minister for the second time, but died within months. The King then appointed

Fox-North Coalition. The Duke of Portland became Prime Minister; Fox and Lord North, Foreign Secretary and Home Secretary respectively, really held power, with Portland acting as a figurehead.[10]

George III was distressed by the attempts to force him to appoint ministers not of his liking, but the Portland ministry quickly built up a majority in the House of Commons, and could not easily be displaced. He was, moreover, extremely dissatisfied when the government introduced the India Bill, which proposed to reform the government of India by transferring political power from the

election gave Pitt a firm mandate.[10]

William Pitt

Queen Charlotte
and George III awash with treasury funds to cover royal debts, with Pitt handing them another moneybag.

For George III, Pitt's appointment was a great victory. It proved that he was able to appoint Prime Ministers on the basis of his own interpretation of the public mood without having to follow the choice of the current majority in the House of Commons. Throughout Pitt's ministry, George supported many of Pitt's political aims and created new peers at an unprecedented rate to increase the number of Pitt's supporters in the House of Lords.

Royal Academy
with large grants from his private funds. The British people admired their King for remaining faithful to his wife, unlike the two previous Hanoverian monarchs.

However, by this time George III's health was deteriorating. He suffered from a mental illness, now widely believed to be a symptom of

Speech from the Throne
. Parliament, however, ignored the custom and began to debate provisions for a regency.

Gold guinea of George III, dated 1789

Prince Frederick, Duke of York, denounced Pitt's proposal as "unconstitutional and illegal". Nonetheless, the Lords Commissioners were appointed and then opened Parliament. In February 1789, the Regency Bill, authorising the Prince of Wales to act as Prince Regent, was introduced and passed in the House of Commons. But before the House of Lords could pass the bill, George III recovered from his illness under the treatment of Dr Francis Willis
. He confirmed the actions of the Lords Commissioners as valid, but resumed full control of government.

French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars

After George recovered from his illness, his popularity, and that of Pitt, continued to increase at the expense of Fox and the Prince of Wales.

First Consul of the French Republic
.

A failed attempt to assassinate the King on 15 May 1800 was not political in origin but motivated by the religious delusions of James Hadfield, who shot at the King in the Drury Lane Theatre.

A brief lull in hostilities allowed Pitt to concentrate effort on Ireland, where there had been an uprising in 1798. The British and Irish Parliaments passed the

Emperor of the British and Hanoverian Dominions
", but he refused.

As part of his Irish policy, Pitt planned to remove certain legal disabilities that applied to

Roman Catholics. George III claimed that to emancipate Catholics would be to violate his coronation oath, in which Sovereigns promise to maintain Protestantism.[3]
The King declared,

"Where is the power on Earth to absolve me from the observance of every sentence of that oath, particularly the one requiring me to maintain the Protestant Reformed Religion? … No, no, I had rather beg my bread from door to door throughout Europe, than consent to any such measure. I can give up my crown and retire from power. I can quit my palace and live in a cottage. I can lay my head on a block and lose my life, but I cannot break my oath."

Faced with opposition to his religious reform policies from both the King and the British public, Pitt threatened to resign.

Henry Addington. Addington opposed emancipation, instituted annual accounts, abolished income tax and began a programme of disarmament. In October 1801, he made peace with the French, and in 1802 signed the Treaty of Amiens.[48]

Caricature of George holding Napoleon in the palm of his hand. James Gillray, 1803.

George did not consider the peace with France as "real"; in his view it was an "experiment". In 1803, the two nations once again declared war on each other but public opinion distrusted Addington to lead the nation in war, and instead favoured Pitt. An invasion of England by Napoleon seemed imminent and a massive volunteer movement arose to defend England against the French. One of the best-attended royal events during this time was George's review of 27,000 volunteers in Hyde Park, London on 26 and 28 October 1803, during the height of the invasion scare. An estimated 500,000 people turned up on each day to watch.[49] The Times described it as:

"...a glorious day for Old England. It displayed the youth of the first city of the universe, assembled in military array round the person of their beloved and venerable Sovereign, and ready to devote themselves on the altar of their country ... The enthusiasm of the multitude was beyond all expression. When his MAJESTY entered the Park, a burst of exultation seemed involuntarily to break forth".[50]

George prepared to resist Napoleon. A courtier wrote on 13 November: "The King is really prepared to take the field in case of attack, his beds are ready and he can move at half an hour's warning".

Bishop Hurd
on 30 November:

"We are here in daily expectation that Bonaparte will attempt his threatened invasion; the chances against his success seem so many that it is wonderful he persists in it. ... Should his troops effect a landing, I shall certainly put myself at the head of mine, and my other armed subjects, to repel them".[52]

The possibility of invasion was extinguished after Admiral Lord Nelson's famous naval victory at the Battle of Trafalgar.

In 1804, George was again affected by his recurrent illness; after his recovery, Addington resigned and Pitt regained power. Pitt sought to appoint Fox to his ministry, but George III refused as the King disliked Fox, who had encouraged the Prince of Wales to lead an extravagant and expensive life.

House of Commons
. George III made no further major political decisions during his reign; the replacement of the Duke of Portland by Perceval in 1809 was of little actual significance.

Later life

George, Prince of Wales, acted as Prince-Regent from 1811 to 1820

In 1810, at the height of his popularity

Regency Act 1811,[57] and the Prince of Wales acted as Regent for the remainder of George III's life. By the end of 1811, George III had become permanently insane and lived in seclusion at Windsor Castle until his death.[58]

Lord Liverpool. Liverpool oversaw British victory in the Napoleonic Wars. The subsequent Congress of Vienna
led to significant territorial gains for Hanover, which was upgraded from an electorate to a kingdom.

Half-Crown coin of George III, 1816. Click for notes.

Meanwhile, George's health deteriorated, and eventually he became completely blind and increasingly deaf. He never knew that he was declared King of Hanover in 1814, or of the death of his wife in 1818. Over Christmas 1819, he spoke nonsense for 58 hours, and for the last few weeks of his life was unable to walk. On 29 January 1820, he died at

St. George's Chapel, Windsor
.

George was succeeded by two of his sons

William IV, who both died without surviving legitimate children, leaving the throne to their niece, Victoria
, the last monarch of the House of Hanover and the only legitimate child of the Duke of Kent.

Legacy

George III lived for 81 years and 239 days and reigned for 59 years and 96 days—both his life and his reign were longer than any of his predecessors. Only George's granddaughter

Elizabeth II
has lived longer.

While very popular at the start of his reign, by the mid-1770s George had lost the loyalty of revolutionary American colonists

Erskine May, promoted hostile interpretations of George III's life. However, in the mid-twentieth century the work of Lewis Namier, who thought George was "much maligned", kick-started a re-evaluation of the man and his reign.[62] Scholars of the later twentieth century, such as Butterfield and Pares, and Macalpine and Hunter, are inclined to treat George sympathetically, seeing him as a victim of circumstance and illness. Butterfield rejected the arguments of his Victorian predecessors with withering disdain: "Erskine May must be a good example of the way in which an historian may fall into error through an excess of brilliance. His capacity for synthesis, and his ability to dovetail the various parts of the evidence … carried him into a more profound and complicated elaboration of error than some of his more pedestrian predecessors … he inserted a doctrinal element into his history which, granted his original aberrations, was calculated to project the lines of his error, carrying his work still further from centrality or truth."[63] Today, the long reign of George III is perceived as a continuation of the reduction in the political power of monarchy, and its growth as the embodiment of national morality.[10]

An inaccurate engraving depicting the destruction of George's statue in New York City, 1776

There are many cities and towns in former British colonies named

George IV. Statues of George III include one in the courtyard of Somerset House in London and one in Weymouth, Dorset, which he popularised as one of the first seaside resorts in England.[64] A gilded equestrian statue of George III was pulled down in New York at the beginning of the War of Independence in 1776. Engravings of its destruction are wholly inaccurate.[65]

George III was dubbed "Farmer George" by satirists, at first mocking his interest in mundane matters rather than politics but later to contrast his homely thrift with his son's grandiosity and to portray him as a man of the people.[66] Under George III, who was passionately interested in agriculture,[67] the British Agricultural Revolution reached its peak and great advances were made in fields such as science and industry. There was unprecedented growth in the rural population, which in turn provided much of the workforce for the concurrent Industrial Revolution.[68]

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Royal styles of
George III
Reference style
His Majesty
Spoken styleYour Majesty
Alternative styleSir

Titles and styles

  • 4 June 1738 – 31 March 1751: His Royal Highness Prince George[1]
  • 31 March 1751 – 20 April 1751: His Royal Highness The Duke of Edinburgh
  • 20 April 1751 – 25 October 1760: His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales
  • 25 October 1760 – 29 January 1820: His Majesty The King

In Great Britain, George III used the official

Elizabeth I
. His style became, "George the Third, by the Grace of God, King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Defender of the Faith."

Arms

On 27 July 1749, George was granted use of the arms of the kingdom (as he later inherited), differenced by a label azure of five points, the centre point bearing a fleur-de-lys or. Upon his father's death, and along with the dukedom of Edinburgh and the position of heir-apparent, he inherited his difference of a plain label argent of three points.[69]

From the time of his coronation until 1800, George's

Westfalen), overall an escutcheon Gules charged with the crown of Charlemagne Or (for the dignity of Archtreasurer of the Holy Roman Empire
).

Following the

Act of Union 1800, his arms were amended, dropping the French quartering. They became: Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); overall an escutcheon tierced per pale and per chevron (for Hanover), I Gules two lions passant guardant Or (for Brunswick), II Or a semy of hearts Gules a lion rampant Azure (for Lunenburg), III Gules a horse courant Argent (for Westfalen), the whole inescutcheon surmounted by an electoral bonnet. In 1816, two years after the Electorate of Hanover
became a Kingdom, the electoral bonnet was changed to a crown.

  • Arms of the kingdom pre-Union
    Arms of the kingdom pre-Union
  • Arms of the kingdom post-Union
    Arms of the kingdom post-Union

Issue

Name Birth Death Notes[70]
George IV
 12 August 1762 26 June 1830 married 1795, Princess Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel; had issue; died aged 67
Frederick, Duke of York 16 August 1763 5 January 1827 married 1791,
Princess Frederica of Prussia
; no issue; died aged 53
William IV
 21 August 1765 20 June 1837 married 1818, Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen; no legitimate surviving issue; died aged 71
Charlotte, Princess Royal 29 September 1766 6 October 1828 married 1797, Frederick, King of Württemberg; no issue; died aged 62
Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent 2 November 1767 23 January 1820 married 1818,
Queen Victoria
); died aged 52
Princess Augusta Sophia 8 November 1768 22 September 1840 died aged 71
Princess Elizabeth 22 May 1770 10 January 1840 married 1818,
Frederick, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg
; no issue; died aged 69
Ernest Augustus I of Hanover
 5 June 1771 18 November 1851 married 1815, Princess Frederica of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; had issue; died aged 80
Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex 27 January 1773 22 April 1843 married in contravention of the
1st Duchess of Inverness
); no issue; died aged 70
Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge 24 February 1774 8 July 1850 married 1818,
Princess Augusta of Hesse-Cassel
; had issue; died aged 76
Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester 25 April 1776 30 April 1857 married 1816, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester; no issue; died aged 81
Princess Sophia 3 November 1777 27 May 1848 died aged 70
Prince Octavius 23 February 1779 3 May 1783 died aged 4
Prince Alfred 22 September 1780 20 August 1782 died aged 23 months
Princess Amelia 7 August 1783 2 November 1810 died aged 27

Ancestors

Family of George III
16.
Sophia of Saxe-Weissenfels
31. Anna Maria of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (= 27)

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b The London Gazette consistently refers to the young prince as "His Royal Highness Prince George" [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]
  2. ^ a b 24 May in the Old Style Julian calendar still in use in Great Britain at this time.
  3. ^ a b c d The Royal Household. "George III". Official website of the British Monarchy. Retrieved 2007-05-25.
  4. ^ Butterfield, p.9
  5. ^ Hibbert, p.8
  6. ^ Yvonne's Royalty Home Page: Royal Christenings
  7. ^ Hibbert, pp.3–15
  8. ^ Hibbert, pp.24–25
  9. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/46829
    , retrieved 2008-09-17 (Subscription required)
  10. ^ a b c d e f Cannon, John (Sept 2004; online edn, Jan 2007), "George III (1738–1820)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, retrieved 2007-05-25 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ Hibbert, p.31
  12. Princess Olive". After being studied by the Attorney General, it was deposited in the Royal Archives
    .
  13. ^ For example, the letters of Horace Walpole written at the time of the accession defended George but Walpole's later memoirs were hostile (Butterfield, pp.22, 115–117 and 129–130).
  14. ^ Hibbert, p.86 and Watson, pp.67–79
  15. ^ Watson, p.93 and Caretta, pp.59 and 64 ff.
  16. ^ Watson, pp.182–184
  17. ^ An American taxpayer would pay a maximum of sixpence a year, compared to an average of twenty-five shillings (50 times as much) in England. (Hibbert, p.122)
  18. ^ Watson, pp.184–185
  19. ^ Hibbert, pp.107–109 and Watson, pp.106–111
  20. ^ Hibbert, pp.111–113
  21. ^ Hibbert, p.124
  22. ^ Hibbert, p.140
  23. ^ Hibbert, p.141
  24. ^ Hibbert, p.143
  25. ^ Watson, p.197
  26. ^ Thomas, Peter D. G. (1985), "George III and the American Revolution", History, 70 (228): 31
  27. ^ "Our history". The Crown Estate. 2004. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
  28. ^ Kelso, Paul (6 March 2000), "The royal family and the public purse", The Guardian, retrieved 2008-02-21
  29. ^ Watson, p.88
  30. ^ Medley, Dudley Julius (1902). A Student's Manual of English Constitutional History. p. 501
  31. ^ Hibbert, pp.156–157
  32. ^ Trevelyan, vol.1 p.4
  33. ^ Trevelyan, vol.1 p.5
  34. ^ Hillenbrad, William (2001). Born in Battle: A History of the American Revolution. Troubadour Interactive. ISBN 1890642177
  35. ^ Hibbert, p.165
  36. ^ Hibbert, p.243 and Pares, p.120
  37. ^ Watson, pp.272–279
  38. ^ Carretta, pp.262 and 297
  39. ^ Röhl, John C. G. (1998). Purple Secret: Genes, "Madness" and the Royal Houses of Europe. London: Bantam Press. ISBN 0-593-04148-8. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  40. ^ Cox, Timothy M.; Jack, N.; Lofthouse, S.; Watling, J.; Haines, J.; Warren, M.J. (2005). "King George III: and porphyria: an elemental hypothesis and investigation". The Lancet (Elsevier) 366: 332–335.
  41. ^ Hibbert, pp.262–267
  42. ^ Hibbert, p.273
  43. ^ Carretta, p.285; Hibbert, pp.301–302 and Watson, p.323
  44. ^ Carretta, p.275
  45. ^ Watson, pp.360–377
  46. ^ Hibbert, p.313
  47. ^ Hibbert, p.315
  48. ^ Watson, pp.402–409
  49. ^ Colley, Linda (1994). Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837 (Yale University Press), p. 225.
  50. ^ The Times (27 October 1803), p. 2.
  51. ^ Brooke, John (1974). King George III (Panther), p. 597.
  52. ^ Wheeler, H. F. B.; Broadley, A. M. (1908). Napoleon and the Invasion of England. Volume I (London: John Lane The Bodley Head), p. xiii.
  53. ^ Pares, p.139
  54. ^ Carretta, p.340
  55. ^ Hibbert, p.396
  56. ^ Hibbert, p.394
  57. ^ Hibbert, pp.397–398
  58. ^ Hibbert, pp.399–402
  59. ^ Hibbert, p.408
  60. ^ Carretta, pp.99–101 and 123–126
  61. ^ Reitan, E. A. (1964). "Introduction". In Reitan, E. A. (ed.). George III, Tyrant Or Constitutional Monarch?. Boston: D. C. Heath and Company. pp. p.viii.
  62. ^ Reitan, pp.xii–xiii
  63. ^ Butterfield, p.152
  64. ^ Watson, p.549
  65. ^ Carretta, pp.97, 98 and 367
  66. ^ Carretta, pp.92–93, 267–273, 302–305 and 317
  67. ^ "'Farmer' George and his 'ferme ornée'". Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
  68. ^ Watson, pp.10–11
  69. ^ Marks of Cadency in the British Royal Family
  70. ^ Weir, pp.286–299

References

Further reading

Wikiquote has quotations related to George III.
Wikisource has original works by or about:
George III of Great Britain
Wikimedia Commons has media related to George III of the United Kingdom.

External links
George III
Cadet branch of the House of Welf
Born: 4 June 1738  Died: 29 January 1820
Regnal titles
Preceded by King of Great Britain
25 October 1760 – 31 December 1800 		United together
by the
Act of Union 1800
 
King of Ireland

25 October 1760 – 31 December 1800
Elector of Hanover

25 October 1760 – 6 August 1806 		Suspended
Great French War
New title
Act of Union 1800 united
Great Britain and Ireland
George, Prince of Wales
and Prince Regent
(1811–20) 		Succeeded by
George IV
Suspended
Great French War
 King of Hanover
1 October 1814 – 29 January 1820
British royalty
Preceded by Heir to the Thrones
as heir apparent
1751–1760 		Succeeded by
Prince Edward, Duke of York
Peerage of Great Britain
Preceded by Prince of Wales
1751–1760 		Succeeded by
Prince George, Duke of Cornwall

later King George IV
Duke of Edinburgh
1st creation
1751–1760 		Merged in the Crown

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