Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising | |||||||
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Part of World War II and the Holocaust | |||||||
Jewish women and children forcibly removed from a bunker; one of the most iconic pictures of World War II. | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
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Commanders and leaders | |||||||
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Strength | |||||||
Daily average of 2,090 including 821 Waffen-SS | About 600[1] ŻOB and about 400[2] ŻZW fighters, plus a number of Polish fighters | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
110 (17 dead, 93 wounded (German figures)).[3][a] | 57,065 killed/and or captured of which approximately 36,000 deported to extermination camps (German estimate) | ||||||
According to Stroop's unofficial account, 56,065 people were killed or deported. |
The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (
The uprising started on 19 April when the ghetto refused to surrender to the police commander
Background
In 1939, German authorities began to concentrate Poland's population of over three million Jews into a number of extremely crowded
The SS conducted many of the deportations during the operation code-named
When the deportations first began, members of the
The uprising
January revolt
On 18 January 1943, the Germans began their second deportation of the Jews, which led to the first instance of armed insurgency within the ghetto. While Jewish families hid in their so-called "bunkers", fighters of the ŻZW, joined by elements of the ŻOB, resisted, engaging the Germans in direct clashes.[19] Though the ŻZW and ŻOB suffered heavy losses (including some of their leaders), the Germans also took casualties, and the deportation was halted within a few days. Only 5,000 Jews were removed, instead of the 8,000 planned by Globocnik. Hundreds of people in the Warsaw Ghetto were ready to fight, adults and children, sparsely armed with handguns, gasoline bottles, and a few other weapons that had been smuggled into the ghetto by resistance fighters.[1] Most of the Jewish fighters did not view their actions as an effective measure by which to save themselves, but rather as a battle for the honour of the Jewish people, and a protest against the world's silence.[15]
Preparations
Two resistance organizations, the ŻZW and ŻOB, took control of the ghetto. They built dozens of fighting posts and executed a number of Nazi collaborators, including Jewish Ghetto Police officers, members of the fake (German-sponsored and controlled) resistance organization Żagiew, as well as Gestapo and Abwehr agents (such as Judenrat member Dr Alfred Nossig, executed on 22 February 1943).[20] The ŻOB established a prison to hold and execute traitors and collaborators.[21] Józef Szeryński, former head of the Jewish Ghetto Police, committed suicide.[22]
Main revolt
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2017) |
On 19 April 1943, on the eve of
The longest-lasting defense of a position took place around the ŻZW stronghold at Muranowski Square, where the ŻZW chief leader,
The matter of the flags was of great political and moral importance. It reminded hundreds of thousands of the Polish cause, it excited them and unified the population of the General Government, but especially Jews and Poles. Flags and national colours are a means of combat exactly like a rapid-fire weapon, like thousands of such weapons. We all knew that – Heinrich Himmler, Krüger, and Hahn. The Reichsfuehrer [Himmler] bellowed into the phone: "Stroop, you must at all costs bring down those two flags!"
— Jürgen Stroop, 1949[10]
During this fight on 22 April, SS officer Hans Dehmke was killed when gunfire detonated a hand grenade he was holding.[25] When Stroop's ultimatum to surrender was rejected by the defenders, his forces resorted to systematically burning houses block by block using flamethrowers and fire bottles, and blowing up basements and sewers. "We were beaten by the flames, not the Germans," Edelman said in 2007.[26] In 2003, he recalled: "The sea of flames flooded houses and courtyards. ... There was no air, only black, choking smoke and heavy burning heat radiating from the red-hot walls, from the glowing stone stairs."[27] The "bunker wars" lasted an entire month, during which German progress was slowed.[28]
While the battle continued inside the ghetto, Polish resistance groups AK and GL engaged the Germans between 19 and 23 April at six different locations outside the ghetto walls, firing at German sentries and positions. In one attack, three units of the AK under the command of Captain Józef Pszenny ("Chwacki") joined up in a failed attempt to breach the ghetto walls with explosives.[29] Eventually, the ŻZW lost all of its commanders and, on 29 April, the remaining fighters from the organization escaped the ghetto through the Muranowski tunnel and relocated to the Michalin forest. This event marked the end of significant fighting.
At this point, organized defense collapsed. Surviving fighters and thousands of remaining Jewish civilians took cover in the sewer system and in the many dugout hiding places hidden among the ruins of the ghetto, referred to as "bunkers" by Germans and Jews alike. The Germans used dogs to look for such hideouts, then usually dropped smoke bombs down to force people out. Sometimes they flooded these so-called bunkers or destroyed them with explosives. On occasions, shootouts occurred. A number of captured fighters—especially the women—lobbed hidden grenades or fired concealed handguns after surrendering. There were also clashes between small groups of insurgents and German patrols at night.
Stroop later recalled:
May First was memorable for a number of reasons. I witnessed an extraordinary scene that day. A group of prisoners had been herded into the square. In spite of their exhaustion, many of them held their heads high. I stood nearby, surrounded by my escort. Suddenly I heard shots. A young Jew – in his midtwenties I'd guess – was firing a pistol at one of our police officers – one...two...three...fast as lightning. One of the bullets hit the officer's hand. My men sprayed the Jew with fire. I managed to whip out my own pistol and hit him as he fell. As he lay dying, I stood over him, watching his life ebb away.
On 8 May, the Germans discovered a large dugout located at
On 10 May, a
I cannot continue to live and to be silent while the remnants of Polish Jewry, whose representative I am, are being murdered. My comrades in the Warsaw Ghetto fell with arms in their hands in the last heroic battle. I was not permitted to fall like them, together with them, but I belong with them, to their mass grave. By my death, I wish to give expression to my most profound protest against the inaction in which the world watches and permits the destruction of the Jewish people.[31]
The suppression of the uprising officially ended on 16 May 1943, when Stroop personally pushed a detonator button to demolish the
What a marvelous sight it was. A fantastic piece of theater. My staff and I stood at a distance. I held the electrical device which would detonate all the charges simultaneously. Jesuiter called for silence. I glanced over at my brave officers and men, tired and dirty, silhouetted against the glow of the burning buildings. After prolonging the suspense for a moment, I shouted:
Heil Hitler and pressed the button.— Jürgen Stroop, Conversations with an Executioner[32]
Besides claiming an estimated 56,065 Jews accounted for (although his own figures showed the number to be 57,065) and noting that "The number of destroyed dug-outs amounts to 631." in his official report 24 May 1943, Stroop listed the following as captured booty:[33]
- 7 Polish Rifles
- 1 Russian Rifle
- 1 German Rifle
- 59 pistols of various calibers
- Several hundred hand grenades, including Polish and home-made ones .
- Several hundred incendiary bottles
- Home-made explosives
- Infernal machines with fuses
- A large amount of explosives, ammunition for weapons of all calibers, including some machine-gun ammunition.
Regarding the booty of arms, it must be taken into consideration that the arms themselves could in most cases not be captured, as the bandits and Jews would, before being arrested, throw them into hiding places or holes which could not be ascertained or discovered. The smoking out of the dug-out by our men, also often made the search for arms impossible. As the dug-outs had to be blown up at once, a search later on was out of the question. The captured hand grenades, ammunition, and incendiary bottles were at once reused by us against the bandits. Further booty:
- 1,240 used military tunics (part of them with medal ribbons-Iron Cross and East Medal)
- 600 pairs of used trousers
- Other equipment and German steel helmets
- 108 horses, 4 of them still in the former Ghetto (hearse)
Up to 23 May 1943 we had counted:
Apart from 8 buildings (Police Barracks, hospital, and accommodations for housing working-parties) the former Ghetto is completely destroyed. Only the dividing walls are left standing where no explosions were carried out. But the ruins still contain a vast amount of stones and scrap material which could be used.
4.4 million Zloty; furthermore about 5 to 6 million Zloty not yet counted, a great amount of foreign currency, e.g. $14,300 in paper and $9,200 in gold, moreover valuables (rings, chains, watches, etc.) in great quantities. State of the Ghetto at the termination of the large-scale operation:
Sporadic resistance continued and the last skirmish took place on 5 June 1943 between Germans and a holdout group of armed Jews without connections to the resistance organizations.
Casualties
This article needs additional citations for verification. (August 2018) |
13,000 Jews were killed in the ghetto during the uprising (some 6,000 among them were burnt alive or died from smoke inhalation). Of the remaining 50,000 residents, almost all were captured and shipped to Majdanek and Treblinka.
Jürgen Stroop's internal SS daily report for Friedrich Krüger, written on 16 May 1943, stated:
180 Jews, bandits and sub-humans, were destroyed. The former Jewish quarter of Warsaw is no longer in existence. The large-scale action was terminated at 20:15 hours by blowing up the
Warsaw Synagogue. ... Total number of Jews dealt with 56,065, including both Jews caught and Jews whose extermination can be proved. ... Apart from 8 buildings (police barracks, hospital, and accommodations for housing working-parties) the former Ghetto is completely destroyed. Only the dividing walls are left standing where no explosions were carried out.[34]
According to the casualty lists in Stroop's report, German forces suffered a total of 110 casualties – 17 dead (of whom 16 were killed in action) and 93 injured – of whom 101 are listed by name, including over 60 members of the Waffen-SS. These figures did not include Jewish collaborators, but did include the "Trawniki men" and Polish police under his command. The real number of German losses, however, may be well higher (the Germans suffered about 300 casualties by Edelman's estimate). For propaganda purposes, the official announcement claimed the German casualties to be only a few wounded, while propaganda bulletins of the Polish Underground State announced that hundreds of occupiers had been killed in the fighting.
German daily losses of killed/wounded and the official figures for killed or captured Jews and "bandits", according to the Stroop report:
- 19 April: 1 killed, 24 wounded; 580 captured
- 20 April: 3 killed, 10 wounded; 533 captured
- 21 April: 0 killed, 5 wounded; 5,200 captured
- 22 April: 3 killed, 1 wounded; 6,580 captured; 203 "Jews and bandits" killed; 35 Poles killed outside the Ghetto
- 23 April: 0 killed, 3 wounded; 4,100 captured; 200 "Jews and bandits" killed; 3 Jews captured outside the Ghetto.Total of 19,450 Jews reported caught
- 24 April: 0 killed, 3 wounded; 1,660 captured; 1,811 "pulled out of dugouts, about 330 shot".
- 25 April: 0 killed, 4 wounded; 1,690 captured; 274 shot; "very large portion of the bandits ... captured". Total of 27,464 Jews caught
- 26 April: 0 killed, 0 wounded; 1,722 captured; 1,330 "destroyed"; 362 Jews shot. 30 Jews "displaced". Total of 29,186 Jews captured
- 27 April: 0 killed, 4 wounded; 2,560 captured of whom 547 shot; 24 Polish "bandits killed in battle"; 52 Polish "bandits" arrested. Total of 31,746 Jews caught
- 28 April: 0 killed, 3 wounded; 1,655 captured of whom 110 killed; 10 "bandits" killed and 9 "arrested". Total of 33,401 Jews caught
- 29 April: 0 killed 0 wounded; 2,359 captured of whom 106 killed
- 30 April: 0 killed 0 wounded; 1,599 captured of whom 179 killed. Total of 37,359 Jews caught
- 1 May: 2 killed, 2 wounded; 1,026 captured of whom 245 killed. Total of 38,385 Jews caught; 150 killed outside the Ghetto
- 2 May: 0 killed, 7 wounded; 1,852 captured and 235 killed. Total of 40,237 Jews caught
- 3 May: 0 killed, 3 wounded; 1,569 captured and 95 killed. Total of 41,806 Jews caught
- 4 May: 0 killed, 0 wounded; 2,238 captured, of whom 204 shot. Total of 44,089 Jews caught
- 5 May: 0 killed, 2 wounded; 2,250 captured
- 6 May: 2 killed, 1 wounded; 1,553 captured; 356 shot
- 7 May: 0 killed, 1 wounded; 1,109 captured; 255 shot. Total of 45,342 Jews caught
- 8 May: 3 killed, 3 wounded; 1,091 captured and 280 killed; 60 "heavily armed bandits" caught
- 9 May: 0 killed, 0 wounded; 1,037 "Jews and bandits" caught and 319 "bandits and Jews" shot. Total of 51,313 Jews caught; 254 "Jews and bandits" shot outside the Ghetto
- 10 May: 0 killed, 4 wounded; 1,183 caught and 187 "bandits and Jews" shot. Total of 52,693 Jews caught
- 11 May: 1 killed, 2 wounded; 931 "Jews and bandits" caught and 53 "bandits" shot. Total of 53,667 Jews caught
- 12 May: 0 killed, 1 wounded; 663 caught and 133 shot. Total of 54,463 Jews caught
- 13 May: 2 killed, 4 wounded; 561 caught and 155 shot. Total of 55,179 Jews caught
- 14 May: 0 killed, 5 wounded; 398 caught and 154 "Jews and bandits" shot. Total of 55,731 Jews caught
- 15 May: 0 killed, 1 wounded; 87 caught and 67 "bandits and Jews" shot. Total of 56,885 Jews caught
- 16 May: 0 killed, 0 wounded; 180 "Jews, bandits and subhumans destroyed". Total of 57,065 Jews either captured or killed[35]
According to Raul Hilberg, "the number cited by Stroop (16 dead, 85 wounded) cannot be rejected out of hand, but it is likely that his list was neither complete, free of errors, nor indicative of the German losses throughout the entire period of resistance, until the absolute liquidation of Jewish life in the ghetto. All the same, the German casualty figures cited by the various Jewish sources are probably highly exaggerated."[36] Other historians such as Raul Hilberg and French L. MacLean endorse the accuracy of official German casualty figures.[37][38] On the other hand, Stroop report vastly exaggerated actual losses (and strength) of the resistance.[clarification needed]
The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising was the largest single revolt by Jews during World War II.[39]
Aftermath
After the uprising was over, most of the incinerated houses were razed, and the Warsaw concentration camp complex was established in their place. Thousands of people died in the camp or were executed in the ruins of the ghetto. At the same time, the SS were hunting down the remaining Jews still hiding in the ruins. On 19 April 1943, the first day of the most significant period of the resistance, 7,000 Jews were transported from the Warsaw Ghetto to Treblinka extermination camp,[40] where, purportedly, they developed again into resistance groups, and then helped to plan and execute the revolt and mass escape of 2 August 1943. From May 1943 to August 1944, Executions in the ruins of the ghetto were carried out by:[41]
- Officers of the Warsaw SD facility and the security police, under the supervision of Dr. Ludwig Hahn, whose seat was located in Szuch Avenue;
- Pawiak staff members;
- KL Warschau staff members;
- SS-men from the Third Battalion of the 23rd SS Regiment and the Police (Battalion III/SS-Polizei Regiment 23), commanded by Major Otton Bundtke.[Comments 1]
Both open and secret executions carried out in Warsaw were repeatedly led by SS-Obersturmführer
The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943 took place over a year before the
A number of survivors of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, known as the "Ghetto Fighters", went on to found the kibbutz Lohamei HaGeta'ot (literally: "Ghetto Fighters'"), which is located north of Acre, Israel. The founding members of the kibbutz include Yitzhak Zuckerman (Icchak Cukierman), who represented the ŻOB on the 'Aryan' side, and his wife Zivia Lubetkin, who commanded a fighting unit. In 1984, members of the kibbutz published Daphei Edut ("Testimonies of Survival"), four volumes of personal testimonies from 96 kibbutz members. The settlement features a museum and archives dedicated to remembering the Holocaust. Yad Mordechai, a kibbutz just north of the Gaza Strip, was named after Mordechaj Anielewicz. In 2008, Israel Defense Forces Chief of Staff Gabi Ashkenazi led a group of Israeli officials to the site of the uprising and spoke about the event's "importance for IDF combat soldiers".[47]
In 1968, the 25th anniversary of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, Zuckerman was asked what military lessons could be learned from the uprising. He replied:
I don't think there's any real need to analyze the Uprising in military terms. This was a war of less than a thousand people against a mighty army and no one doubted how it was likely to turn out. This isn't a subject for study in military school. (...) If there's a school to study the human spirit, there it should be a major subject. The important things were inherent in the force shown by Jewish youth after years of degradation, to rise up against their destroyers, and determine what death they would choose: Treblinka or Uprising.[48]
On 7 December 1970,
Many people from the United States and Israel came for the 1983 commemoration.[49]
The last surviving Jewish resistance fighter, Simcha Rotem, died in Jerusalem on 22 December 2018, at age 94.[50][51]
Opposing forces
Jewish
Two Jewish underground organisations fought in the Warsaw Uprising: the left wing Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa (ŻOB) founded in July 1942 by Zionist Jewish youth groups within the Warsaw Ghetto;[52] and the right wing Żydowski Związek Wojskowy (ŻZW), or Jewish Military Union, a national organization founded in 1939 by former Polish military officers of Jewish background which had strong ties to the Polish Home Army, and cells in almost every major town across Poland.[53][54] However both organisations were officially incorporated into the Polish Home Army and its command structure in exchange for weapons and training.[55]
Marek Edelman, who was the only surviving uprising commander from the left-wing ŻOB, stated that the ŻOB had 220 fighters and each was armed with a handgun, grenades, and Molotov cocktails. His organization had three rifles in each area, as well as two land mines and one submachine gun.[56][57][58][59] Due to its socialist leanings, the Soviets promoted the actions of ŻOB as the dominant or only party in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, a view often adopted by secondary sources in the West.[54]
The right-wing faction ŻZW, which was founded by former Polish officers, was larger, more established and had closer ties with the Polish resistance, making it better equipped.[60][19] Zimmerman describes the arms supplies for the uprising as "limited but real".[61] Specifically, Jewish fighters of the ŻZW received from the Polish Home Army: 2 heavy machine guns, 4 light machine guns, 21 submachine guns, 30 rifles, 50 pistols, and over 400 grenades for the uprising.[62] During the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, ŻZW is reported to have had about 400 well-armed fighters grouped in 11 units, with 4 units including fighters from the Polish Home Army. Due to the ŻZW's anti-socialist stand and close ties with the Polish Home Army (which was subsequently outlawed by the Soviets), the Soviets suppressed publication of books and articles on ŻZW after the war and downplayed its role in the uprising, in favour of the more socialist ŻOB.
More weapons were supplied throughout the uprising, and some were captured from the Germans. Some weapons were handmade by the resistance; sometimes such weapons worked, other times they jammed repeatedly.
Shortly before the uprising,
They were armed with revolvers stuck in their belts. Different kinds of weapons were hung in the large rooms: light machine guns, rifles, revolvers of different kinds, hand grenades, bags of ammunition, German uniforms, etc., all of which were utilized to the full in the April "action". (...) While I was there, a purchase of arms was made from a former Polish Army officer, amounting to a quarter of a million
Due to the nature of the conflict and that it took place within the confines of German-guarded Warsaw Ghetto, the role of the Polish Home Army was primarily one of ancillary support; namely, the provision of arms, ammunition and training.[60][65] Although the Home Army's stocks were meager, and general provision of arms limited,[60] the right-wing ŻZW received significant quantities of armaments, including some heavy and light machine guns, submachine guns, rifles, pistols and grenades.[66]
Polish
The Polish Home Army also disseminated information and appeals to help the Jews in the ghetto, both in Poland and by way of radio transmissions to the
In mid-April at 4 am, the Germans began to liquidate the Warsaw Ghetto, closed down the remnants of the Jews with a police cordon, went inside tanks and armored cars and carried out their destructive work. We know that you help the martyred Jews as much as you can, I thank you, my countrymen, on my own and the government's behalf, I am asking you to help them in my own name and in the government, I am asking you for help and for extermination of this horrible cruelty.
— Supreme Commander of theCouncil for Aid to Jews calling for help to Jews.[69]
The command of the Home Army ordered its sabotage units, Kedyw, to carry a series of actions around the walls against the German units under the code name Ghetto Action.[70][71] Between 19 and 23 April 1943, the Polish resistance engaged the Germans at six different locations outside the ghetto walls, shooting at German sentries and positions and in one case attempting to blow up a gate.[71][72] The Polish Home Army fought in 4 units with the ŻZW in Muranowska Street having climbed into the ghetto via secret tunnels dug by the ŻZW. A National Security Corps unit commanded by Henryk Iwański ("Bystry") reportedly fought inside the ghetto along with ŻZW and subsequently both groups retreated together (including 34 Jewish fighters) to the so-called Aryan side.[73][dubious ] Several ŻOB commanders and fighters also later escaped through the tunnels with assistance from the Poles and joined the Polish underground (Home Army).[67]
From April 24, daily patrols against Germans near the ghetto, aimed at eliminating the Germans and training our own (Home Army) branches- up to now without own losses. Some Germans were eliminated every day.
-
Poster printed byŻOB: "All people are equal brothers; Brown, White, Black and Yellow. To separate peoples, colors, races, Is but an act of cheating!"
-
Commemorative pennant of ŻZW – Jewish Military Union.
-
The cover page of TheInternational Military Tribunal in Nurembergmarkings.
-
Page 5 of Stroop Report describing German fight against "Juden mit polnischen Banditen" – "Jews with Polish bandits".[75]
-
Continuation 27 April 1943 describing fight against "jüdisch-polnische Wehrformation" ("Jewish-Polish armed formation").[75]
On the other hand, despite Polish fighters joining the struggle, some survivors criticized gentile Poles for not providing sufficient support. In her book On Both Sides of the Wall, Vladka Meed, who was a member of the left-wing ŻOB, devoted a chapter to the insufficient support from the Polish resistance.[76] Indeed, records confirm that the leftist ŻOB received less weaponry and no fighters from the Polish Home Army, unlike the right-wing ŻZW with whom the Home Army had close ties and ideological similarities.[61][19][56]
German
Ultimately, the efforts of the Jewish resistance fighters proved insufficient against the German occupation system. According to Hanna Krall, the German task force dispatched to put down the revolt and complete the deportation action numbered 2,090 men armed with a number of
I had two battalions of Waffen-SS, one hundred army men, units of Order Police, and seventy-five to a hundred Security Police people. The Security Police had been active in the Warsaw Ghetto for some time, and during this program it was their function to accompany SS units in groups of six or eight, as guides and experts in ghetto matters.[78]
By his own words, Stroop reported that after he took command on 19 April 1943 the forces at his disposal totaled 31 officers and 1,262 men:[80]
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Stroop's report listed ultimate forces at his disposal as 36 officers and 2,054 men:[81]
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His casualty
Controversy
Already during the war the influence and the importance of the right leaning Jewish underground organisation Żydowski Związek Wojskowy (ZZW) or Jewish Military Union was being downgraded. The surviving commanders of the leftist
This led to a number of myths concerning both the ŻZW and the Uprising being commonly repeated in many modern publications.
In recent years, new research by historians Dariusz Libionka (Poland) and Laurence Weinbaum (Israel) on the ŻZW has called into question the validity of what has been written on the Revisionist Zionist underground that fought in the ghetto. Their monograph (Bohaterowie, hochsztaplerzy, opisywacze) cast new light on some of the Polish and Jewish accounts retold by those who wrote about the revolt. Over the years these testimonies found their way into many secondary sources – both popular and scholarly works by other authors – as well as reference books. The research by Libionka and Weinbaum attempted to deconstruct and discredit the testimony of Henryk Iwański and two others who claimed to have fought in the ranks of the organization or aided it.[89] Libionka and Weinbaum maintain that Dawid Moryc Apfelbaum, who is often credited with having played a commanding role in the ŻZW, and after whom a square was named in Warsaw, was in all likelihood an entirely fictitious figure, a product of fałszywka (political forgery).[89][90]
Nevertheless, the stories of Apfelbaum and Iwański as heroic combatants of the ghetto continue to be the focus of commemorations.[91] In Israel, on the 70th anniversary of the uprising, a new edition of the 1963 book on the ŻZW written by Chaim Lazar-Litai was published, and retold the story of Iwański's and Apfelbaum's commanding role in the ŻZW. The retired Israeli politician Moshe Arens, who has also written widely on the ŻZW and the Warsaw Ghetto, contributed a foreword to the new edition.[92]
In popular culture
The uprising is the subject of numerous works, in multiple media, such as Aleksander Ford's film Border Street (1948),[93] John Hersey's novel The Wall (1950), Leon Uris' novel Mila 18 (1961), Jack P. Eisner's autobiography The Survivor (1980),[94] Andrzej Wajda's films A Generation (1955), Samson (1961), and Holy Week (1995),[95] and Jon Avnet's film Uprising (2001). It was also portrayed in Marvin J. Chomsky's NBC miniseries Holocaust (1978) and Roman Polanski's film The Pianist (2002) Based on 1946 (reprinted 1999) Warsaw Ghetto Survivor memoir The Pianist (memoir) by Władysław Szpilman. The revolt was briefly featured in the fantasy film Highlander (1986), as well as in the novel Highlander: Zealot (1997) and the video game Velvet Assassin (2009). Joe Kubert's graphic novel Yossel imagines the conflict.
Songs about the uprising include
The
See also
- Destruction of Warsaw
- Sobibor Uprising
- Białystok Ghetto Uprising
- Ghetto uprising
- Battle of Muranów Square
Notes
- ^ Bundtke's Battalion stayed in the former ghetto and worked on its pacification after the official suppression of the uprising.
References
- ^ a b Guttman, John (March 2000). "World War II: Warsaw Ghetto Uprising". World War II Magazine. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
- ^ "Zapomniani żołnierze ŻZW". Rzeczpospolita (in Polish). 18 April 2008. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- ^ Stroop Report pp. 25-30
- ^ Stroop Report pp. 25-30
- )
- ^ Warsaw Ghetto Diaries: Hillel Seidman, pg. 58
- Musial, Bogdan(ed.). "Aktion Reinhard" – Die Vernichtung der Juden im Generalgouvernement (in German). Osnabrück: Fibre. pp. 257–281.
- ^ Court of Assizes in Düsseldorf, Germany. Excerpts From Judgments (Urteilsbegründung). AZ-LG Düsseldorf: II 931638.
- ^ The Nizkor Project, Statement by Stroop to CMP investigators about his actions in the Warsaw Ghetto (24 February 1946) Wiesbaden, Germany, 24 February 1946.
- ^ a b Moshe Arens, Who Defended The Warsaw Ghetto? Archived 26 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine (The Jerusalem Post)
- The Stroop Report: Table of Contents (Jewish Virtual Library)
- ^ a b Jewish Virtual Library, Ferdinand von Sammern-Frankenegg Source: Danny Dor (Ed.), Brave and Desperate. Israel Ghetto Fighters, 2003, p. 166.
- ^ "Warsaw Ghetto Uprising". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 18 May 2014.
- ^ Voices From the Inferno: Holocaust Survivors Describe the Last Months in the Warsaw Ghetto – January 1943: The First Armed Resistance in the Ghetto An online exhibition by Yad Vashem
- ^ a b Voices From the Inferno: Holocaust Survivors Describe the Last Months in the Warsaw Ghetto – January 1943: Fighters in the Warsaw Ghetto An online exhibition by Yad Vashem
- ^ "United States Department of State / Foreign relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1943. General (1943)", "Bermuda Conference to consider the refugee problem, April 19–28, 1943, and the implementation of certain of the conference recommendations", s. 134–249.
- ISBN 9782226155931
- ^ The Allies' Refugee Conference—A "Cruel Mockery" by Dr. Rafael Medoff Archived 13 May 2004 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ ISBN 0-8022-2486-5. Note: Chariton and Lazar were never co-authors of Wdowiński's memoir. Wdowiński is considered the "single author".
- ^ "The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, by Marek Edelman". Writing.upenn.edu. Retrieved 28 January 2012.
- ^ Benjamin Wald Jewish Virtual Library
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- ^ [1]
- ^ a b "World War II: Warsaw Ghetto Uprising". Historynet.com. Retrieved 28 January 2012.
- ^ Stroop Report 22 April 1943. PDF file, direct download.
- ^ "Last Warsaw ghetto revolt commander honours fallen comrades". European Jewish Press. 20 April 2007. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
- ^ "Europe | Warsaw Jews mark uprising". BBC News. 20 April 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- ^ Voices From the Inferno: Holocaust Survivors Describe the Last Months in the Warsaw Ghetto – January 1943: In the Bunkers During the Uprising An online exhibition by Yad Vashem
- ^ Stefan Korbonski The Polish Underground State: A Guide to the Underground, 1939–1945 Archived 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Moczarski (1981), pages 148–149.
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- ^ Israel Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 1939–1945: Ghetto, Underground, Revolt, Indiana University Press, 1982 (p.393–394)
- ^ Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews, Third Edition, Yale University Press, 2003 (volume 2, p. 537)
- ^ French L. MacLean, The Ghetto Men: The SS Destruction of the Jewish Warsaw Ghetto—April–May 1943, Schiffer Military History, 2001
- ^ "Jewish uprisings in Ghettos and Camps, 1941–1944". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
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- ^ Bogusław Kopka: Konzentrationslager Warschau... op.cit, p. 26, 60, 62.
- ^ Władysław Bartoszewski: Warszawski pierścień śmierci... op.cit., p. 431.
- ^ Regina Domańska: Pawiak... op.cit, p. 417.
- ^ Voices From the Inferno: Holocaust Survivors Describe the Last Months in the Warsaw Ghetto – Clearing the Remains of the Ghetto. An online exhibition by Yad Vashem
- ^ Voices From the Inferno: After the Uprising: Life Among the Ruins of the Warsaw Ghetto. An online exhibition by Yad Vashem
- ISBN 0-8419-0851-6, p. 213-14, Holmes & Meier Publishers 1984
- ^ Azoulay, Yuval. "IDF Chief, in Warsaw: Israel, its army are answer to Holocaust", Haaretz, 29 April 2008.
- ^ A. Polonsky, (2012), The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume III, 1914 to 2008, p. 537
- ISBN 8389129221.
- )
- ^ "Last Warsaw Ghetto Uprising fighter dies". Deutsche Welle. 23 December 2018. Retrieved 23 December 2018.
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- ^ a b Maciej Kledzik (October 2002). "ŻZW; Appelbaum w cieniu Anielewicza". Rzeczpospolita (in Polish). 10 (12). 2002-10-11. Retrieved 2006-05-09.
- Stefan Korbonski, The Polish Underground State, pp. 123-124 and 130. Jews Under Occupation Archived 2011-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
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- ISBN 0-7818-0901-0
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{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link). Template:Pl icon - ^ Wroński (1971)
- ^ Strzembosz (1978), page 103.
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- ^ Józef Garliński Hitler's Last Weapons: The Underground War against the V1 and V2, Times Books, New York 1978
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- ^ Strzembosz (1983), page 283.
- ^ a b Jürgen Stroop, "Es gibt keinen jüdischen Wohnbezirk in Warschau mehr!", Warsaw 1943
- ISBN 0-89604-012-7
- ^ a b USHMM: Recognize someone? Askari or Trawniki guards peer into a doorway past the bodies of Jews killed during the suppression of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. The original German caption reads: "Askaris used during the operation". Photo Archives. Hostile commentator: denaturalized former guard at Trawniki, Bruno Hajda, tried in the U.S., February 1996 (No. 97-2362).
- ^ "Statement by Stroop to Investigators About His Actions in the Warsaw Ghetto". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. 24 February 1946. Retrieved 4 May 2012.
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- ^ Stroop Report 19 April 1943 at JPFO Site. Also at:Jewish Virtual Library Stroop report 19 April 1943 dated 20 April 1943.
- ^ Stroop report p. 7
- ^ Stroop Report pp. 25-30
- ^ Otto Hanke trial
- ^ Awards Warsaw Ghetto Destruction
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- ISBN 0-520-07841-1.
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- ^ Aleksandr Svishchev (July 2003). "Восстание в Варшавском гетто. Мифы и действительность (Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: myths and facts". Еврейские новости (Jewish News) (in Russian). 2003-07-23 (27 (51)). Retrieved 9 May 2006.
- ^ a b Hubert Kuberski, "Mówią Wieki – Libionka/Weinbaum book review". Czasopismo Historyczne Mowiawieki.pl. 15 May 2012. Retrieved 25 November 2012.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - ^ "Historia Żydowskiego Związku Wojskowego to wieloletnia historia przekłamań – WPROST". Wprost.pl. 19 April 2012. Retrieved 25 November 2012.
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- ^ Chaim Lazar: Litai Masada of Warsaw: The Jewish Military Organization in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising [Hebrew], Tel Aviv: Jabotinsky Institute in Israel, 2013.
- ^ "Border-Street – Trailer – Cast – Showtimes". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 November 2012.(subscription required)
- ^ "Jack Eisner, 77, Holocaust Chronicler, Dies". The New York Times. 30 August 2003.
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- ^ a b Maltz, Judy (3 March 2011). "Holocaust Studies / A picture worth six million names". Haaretz. Retrieved 23 September 2018.
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Bibliography
- ISBN 0-906224-56-X.
- ISBN 1-904859-05-4.[2]
- Meckl, Markus. "The Memory of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising". European Legacy 13.7 (2008): 815-824.
- ISBN 0-13-171918-1.Review
Primary sources
- ISBN 978-0-300-09546-3.)
Original in Polish: PDF 1.86 MB.
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: External link in
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In Other languages
- Gebhardt-Herzberg, Sabine (2003). "Das Lied ist geschrieben mit Blut und nicht mit Blei": Mordechaj Anielewicz und der Aufstand im Warschauer Ghetto (in German). Bielefeld: S. Gebhardt-Herzberg. ISBN 3-00-013643-6.
- Jahns, Joachim (2009). Der Warschauer Ghettokönig. Dingsda-Verlag, Leipzig, ISBN 978-3-928498-99-9
- ISBN 8306007174.
- Witkowski, Henryk (1984). "Kedyw okręgu warszawskiego Armii Krajowej w latach 1943-1944" (eng. Kedyw of Warsaw district of the Home Army in the years 1943–1944) (in Polish). Warszawa: Instytut Wydawniczy Związków Zawodowych. ISBN 83-202-0217-5.
- Wroński, Stanisław (1971). "Polacy i Żydzi 1939–1945" (in Polish). Warsaw: Książka i Wiedza.
External links
- Voices From the Inferno: Holocaust Survivors Describe the Last Months in the Warsaw Ghetto, an online exhibition by Yad Vashem
- Rare color photo (not colorized) from Warsaw Ghetto Uprising by Zbigniew Borowczyk (visible Church of St. Anthony of Padua at 31/33 Senatorska Street and burning ghetto).
- Warsaw Ghetto Uprising at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
- The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, Yad Vashem
- The Warsaw Ghetto archive (including The Stroop Report) at Jewish Virtual Library
- Stroop Report online in German and English
- Marek Edelman, The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
- Pre and post war pictures of the Warsaw Ghetto uprising
- Rokhl Auerbakh: Literature as Social Service & the Warsaw Ghetto Soup Kitchen