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Tamraparni. Clockwise from upper left:

Tamraparni (

neolithic age. Tamraparniyan spirituality transformed societies across ancient India, to Greece in the west, China in the North to Indonesia in the East. Tamraparni is a rendering of the original Tamil name Tān Poruṇai of the Sangam period, "the cool toddy palm-wine" river.[3][4][5][6][7][8]

Etymology

A meaning for the term following its derivation became "copper-colored leaf", from the words Thamiram (

Sri Lankan Tamil people for God in Tamil, which they often repeated as they lifted up their hands and faces towards Heaven".[26]

Geography

Present day Sri Lanka, the Tan Porunai river and Indonesia

Agastya Malai of the Pothigai range from where it flows into the Tirunelveli district. 2. Vanatheertham waterfalls of Tamraparni river. 3. Agastya statue from the Hindu ruins of Candi Banon, Java, Indonesia 4. The north side of the Puttalam Lagoon
where the Kingdom of Tambapanni was founded with Pandyan and Yakkha queens in Tamraparni, ancient Sri Lanka.
Tamraparni on maps. From left to right, top then bottom: 1. The first geography which the island appears on is that of Eratosthenes, where Sri Lanka is called "Taprobane". 2. 1562 Ruscelli version of Ptolemy's map of Taprobana of 140 CE shows the island of Sri Lanka (Taprobana) with mountain ranges "Galibi" and "Malea", from whence rivers arise 3. Ptolemy's map of Taprobane 4. 9th century Anglo Saxon "Cotton" map of the world with India and Sri Lanka (Taprobanea) at the top.
The star Canopus, named Agastya in early Hindu literature, was the only source of light for navigation around Tamraparni during many nights

Tamraparni is the oldest historical name of the island of

Indus Script reveals a clan-based settlement in the Jaffna region in the Iron Age.[35] The star Canopus is named Agastya in Vedic Hindu literature after the sage, related as both a person and a star, associated with the southern skies whose heliacal ascent marked the end of the rainy season, purification of water and the beginning of autumn. Canopus is described by Pliny the Elder and Solinus as the largest, brightest and only source of starlight for navigators near Tamraparni island during many nights.[36][37][38][39][40]

First Sangam took place in kadal kolla ppatta Maturai, the "Maturai that was flooded by the sea," a tsunami that had destroyed 49 provinces (nadu), mountains and rivers of the old Pandya land, prompting the Pandyans to conquer new lands.[46][47]

The

Masudi and Al-Biruni and European writers to declare Sumatra as being "another Serendib", "another Ceylon", "Tamraparni Major" or "Taprobana Major". The 1417 CE Florentine Map of Palazzo Pitti names it the latter, while relating features of it that are more typical of Sri Lanka.[62]

Society and culture

Tamraparniyan royalty, economy and trade

Maluku islands of Indonesia into Manthai
's emporium, before being shipped to East Africa, Europe, China and India. 4. Ginger, known as ingiver, a native Tamraparniyan spice exported to Indonesia, India, Persia, Rome, Greece and Polynesia.
Tamraparniyan royalty. From left to right 1. A 12th century stone statue in Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka of a sage, whose identity has been described as either Parakramabahu I, Pulastya or Agastya. The city of Polonnaruwa, a corruption of ancient "Pulatthinagara"/"Pulastyanagara"/"Pulastyapura" was founded in dedication to Pulastya.[63][64] 2. Statue of Elara at Madras High Court in Chennai. Early Kings of Anuradhapura such as Elara are described as Tamrapanni island kings.[65][66]
A Tamil inscriptional plaque excavated in Kadiramalai-Kandarodai, Jaffna - an early Tamraparniyan capital that traded with ancient Egypt

A successful society built from strong spiritual values in governance, a lucrative Tamraparniyan economy and international trade culture ensured a reputation for the region as being a highly developed example and the richest of the

old world. It was royal decree that underpinned governance of the region up until the medieval period with evidence of elections and councils. The earliest known royal influences in Tamraparni are that of the family members Kubera – the original ruler of Lanka, Pulastya, Agastya, Vishravas and Ravana, who feature in megalithic Pandyan era society. There were also other royal Tamraparniyan houses, related in large part to the Mūvēntar – the Three Crowned Kings, whose empires helped spread the culture. The Velir-Perumakan group (Perumakan being a lineage title of Velir chiefs meaning "great being, exalted one") formed an important segment of proto-historic Tamraparniyan society, having introduced the megalithic black and red ware techno-culture to Sri Lanka by the 6th century BC, giving leadership and direction to its subsistence economy.[67][68][69] The arrival of Bengali Hindus from North Indian kingdoms of Gangaridai led to more royal houses of Tamraparni. Different kingdoms functioned simultaneously through much of Tamraparni's history. Used from antiquity for agrarian purposes and determining the New Year, the Tamraparniyan calendar utilised lunisolar fractions from ancient Hindu traditions, when conceptual designs for date and time were similar across the subcontinent; the various ethnic groups' traditions employed Rāśi and the vernal equinox for annual determinations.[70]

exports from antiquity were fruits, medicines, rice, honey, palm tree toddy wine, eye-cosmetics, ebony, fragrances, spices (cinnamon, cumin, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, black pepper, cloves), native metals such as wootz steel, copper, gold and silver, pearls, gemstones (sapphires, rubies, Cat's eye, aquamarine, jacinth, red and hessonite garnets, agates, amethyst, carnelian, tourmaline and topaz), skins, elephants, apes, peacocks, tortoise-shell and cotton. The main emporia were Gurunagar and Kadiramalai-Kandarodai, Jaffna in the north, Kudiramalai and Manthai in the North West, Galle and Godavaya in the South and Trincomalee in the East. The seafaring Tamils of the Jaffna port of Valvettithurai established trading contacts with the Coromandel Coast of South India, from places such as Point Calimere's Vedaranyam up to Myanmar and established cities such as Nagapattinam in South India which furthered their global trade.[75][76][77][78][79][80][81]

Elephants, gold, pearls and law

The eminent grammarian, mathematician and Vedic priest

Kālidāsa in Raghuvaṃśa praises the pearl fisheries at the mouth of the river Tamraparni, while giving details that the Ikshvaku king Raghu had conquered the Pandyas by carrying successful arms up to the mouth of the river, and was gifted with these pearls.[93] The linguist Jules Bloch states that Tamraparni in this context was Sri Lanka, from whose coast the Pandyans paid Raghu the pearls.[94] The poem also relates Raghu's subsequent plans to attack the loka of Kubera's kingdom for his wealth following a request for education fees by a pupil, before Kubera "sent down a shower of gold coins" to stop the expedition.[95]

Logan sapphire. 2. Star of Bombay. 3. Star of India. 4. Star of Artaban. Sapphires or mani as they are known, have long held spiritual significance for Tamraparniyans. These Sri Lankan gems, including The Star of Adam
, were natively mined from corundum stone. Sapphires were first sourced and exclusively exported to the world from Manthai and Kudiramalai, ports of ancient Tamraparni from the era of King Solomon, and have featured in many royal jewels.
Diospyros ebenum (Karangali), Tamraparniyan Ebony, cultivated largely in Trincomalee, used for tools, furniture and medicinal purposes, shipped to ancient Egypt and now restricted in international trade

The northwest coast of Sri Lanka had an equally prospering pearl trade, overseen at Kalputti, Kudiramalai and the emporium

Ficus Religiosa).[110][111] Puttalam served as a second capital to kings of the Jaffna kingdom, who directed their energies towards consolidating its economic potential by maximising revenue from a lucrative pearl fishing industry developed there.[112]

Valmiki's

elections, and a majority of this council was needed to pass sentencing, including capital punishment. A right of appeal process existed for the people, where a jury of seventy could be appointed, and if the accused were acquitted, the council of thirty were held in the "deepest disgrace."[118][119]

Citing Onesicritus, Pliny states tigers and elephants on the island were hunted for sport during his time – "

dragons.[127]

Pallava
sculpture can be found at the temple here
Isurumuniya Man and the Horse – a stone depiction of Visravas, son of Pulastya
cardinal gems", rubies have long held spiritual significance in ancient Tamraparni, having been used for eyes of the main Vishnu deity of the Tenavaram temple
A Roman-Tunisian gold bracelet set with various Tamraparniyan pearls[citation needed] and sapphires, 3rd century Tunis.
Senna auriculata, known natively as Avāram and the Matura Tea Tree, is native to Tamraparni. Its components have been used since antiquity to treat many medical conditions in Siddha treatment, as dyeing product and in the production of Wootz steel
Tamraparniyan goods and features it traded since the classical age include fruits, Sri Lankan elephants, gold and toddy palm wine.
File:Vaalum-parichayum.jpeg
Tamraparniyan martial arts included Kalaripayattu and Angampora
True Cinnamon or Karuppa (Ceylon Cinnamon), a native Tamraparniyan spice sold secretly from Sri Lanka to Persian traders in the 6th century BC, having reached ancient Egypt, the Phoenicians and the Israelites before the Greeks and Romans

Gems, ebony and spices

On Tamraparni island, Agastya's hermitage near Adam's Peak in the

Matura Diamond, named after what is now Matara District of South Sri Lanka.[140] In Tamraparni's southeast, the Manikka Ganga ("Gem River") flows from Sivan Oli Pada Malai (Adam's Peak) passed Kataragama temple and into the Indian Ocean at Yala National Park, one of three highly holy and "meritorious streams" mentioned in the Dakshina Kailasa Maanmiam, home to many native gemstones and wildlife.[141][142][143] Ptolemy, Pliny and Megesthenes mention Tamraparni's precious stones, with Ptolemy highlighting beryls and hyacinths among its products.[144] According to Jean-Baptiste Tavernier of the 17th century, rubies and other coloured stones of the island came mostly from a river in the middle of the island that flowed from the mountains, and that locals would search the riverbeds for them about three months following a spring flood. He adds that the rubies of Sri Lanka were "lovelier" than those of Burma.[145]

French biblical scholar

Rameses III, who received royal linen, precious stones and cinnamon.[171][172][173]

Cinnamon is also mentioned in Hebrew texts.

ceramics; black pepper from 600 CE and the world's oldest cloves dating from 900 CE, shipped in from the Maluku Islands of Indonesia, were excavated in Manthai in 2010.[192][193][194]

Wootz steel, copper, wares and more gems

stone querns, blue-green and black Alagankulam glass ingots, iron and copper works, black and red ware, metal spear, grinding stone and bench-shaped stone inscriptions with Pandyan Shiva-Vishna symbolism (the double fish, Nandipada bull footprint and Shrivatsa) – confirm early historic maritime trade between Southern Tamraparni and the Tamil Nadu coast.[220][221][222]

More features in post classical history

ancestors".[236] Also using Sri Lanka's name to the late Romans, Persians and other Middle Easterners – "Serendib" – the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta visited the Tenavaram temple in the 14th century and described the deity Dinawar as sharing the same name as the flourishing trade town in which He resided, made of gold and the size of a man with two large rubies as eyes "that lit up like lanterns during the night."[237][238]

The early

Vanchi.[250][251] A temple of Western Sri Lanka claimed a stake in the Kerala Padmanabhaswamy Temple treasure discovered in 2011 in its vaults, saying its assets were moved to the Kerala temple after a Portuguese governor made an attempt to loot its wealth. The discovery of the treasure attracted widespread national and international media attention, being the largest collection find of gold and precious stones in the recorded history of the world.[252][253][254][255][256]

Food, drink and medicine

Much of Tamraparniyan cuisine and medicine survives today in

French pox.[273]

Clothing attire, cosmetics and martial arts

With couture,

Agathamerus, and continued to be observed on the island by Tennent. Solinus observed that dyeing the hair was common.[279] Cosmetic ingredients such as cinnamon bark and other spice components – used for fragrances – and copper kohl sticks – for eye makeup – were also exported from Pomparippu and Kadiramalai-Kandarodai to Rome and ancient Egypt.[280][281][282][283]

Adam's Peak and the Central Highlands, whose beauty, rivers and gems are often described when relating ancient Tamraparni

The classical era

elephants and wild beasts. The atlas shows an elephant and a black king, adding details about a race of "stupid black giants" who eat up white men "whenever they can get them."[290]

Arts

musical theory, Pancha Marapu. His work would go onto influence classical music such as Carnatic music in South India.[297][298][299]

Religion and spirituality

Mahabharata

"Listen as I now recount the isle of Tamraparni below Pandya-desa and

worship Uma's consort there
". Mahabharata. Volume 3. pp. 46–47, 99.

Vyasa, Mahabharata. c.401 BCE on Trincomalee Koneswaram of Tamraparni island.[43]

Koneswaram temple of Trincomalee (top left) is venerated in the Hindu Puranas as being Agastya's construction who performed penance here and at another Pancha Ishwaram of Tamraparni – Ketheeswaram temple (top right). Agastya statues (bottom left), in Prambanan, Java, Indonesia
archaeological museum, 9th century A.D, home of the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia (bottom right).
Tamraparniyan Buddhist Spirituality. From left to right, top then bottom: 1. Abhayagiri Vihara of Anuradhapura, an ancient centre of Tampraparniyan Mahayana Buddhist learning and worship. 2. Vasubandhu mentions the Tamraparniya nikāya school of Buddhism, of Sri Lankan lineage, in the 4th century. 3. Bronze statue of Avalokiteśvara from Sri Lanka, ca. 750 CE. Avalokitesvara is a Mahayana Tamraparniyan deity, associated with Agastya, the Pothigai hills source of Tamraparni river in Tirunelveli, and the growth of the Tamraparniyan Abhayagiri sect in ancient Sri Lanka, where he is worshipped as Nātha. 4. Borobudur of Java, Indonesia, where Agastya statues are also found relating Jataka tales, and near where Abhayagiri monks from Sri Lanka were based.
Ilango Adigal, a Chera dynasty prince and Tamil Jain who, in his epic Silappatikaram, underlines the importance Agastya worship at Pothigai Hills, Tamraparni river's source, had on the character Sugriva, of the Hindu Ramayana, on his way to Sri Lanka
Nagarjunakonda, where Tamraparniyan monks from Sri Lanka taught to students from the island, the river in Tirunelveli and from across the world by 275 CE

The culture of Tamraparni was dominated by religion. Belief in the divine was ingrained in ancient Tamraparniyan civilization from its inception, where the

Koneswaram of Trincomalee became majorly significant centres of faith from the Yakkha period, being sites of sacrificial and other cult practices, and have since had a global influence on worship; on Trincomalee, Charles Pridham, Jonathan Forbes and George Turnour state that it is probable there is no more ancient form of worship existing in the world than that of Siva Ishwara upon his sacred promontory.[300] The advent of outside influences about 2500 years ago caused suspicious association, with positive as well as negative depictions in different accounts, before a broader assimilation began of faith practices. The religion of Tamraparni thus became fluid, syncretic and by later standards, unorthodox. The initial development of Anuradhapura centralized Hindu and Buddhist worship while supporting cultural exchange on the Tamraparniyan sea route, helping leave a lasting global legacy. Towards its later periods, there was a continuation of religious trends in the third Sangam era where various Hindu (Saivite, and Vaishanava), Buddhist and Jain schools grew with native folk and animist traditions featuring Gramadevata, the village deities of Sri Lankan Tamil and Sinhalese people. Even today, the Sri Lankan culture has some elements that originated from the culture of the Yakkha and Naga, Raksha and Deva groups native to Tamraparni.[301][302][303][304][305]

Hinduism

The city of Trincomalee is uniquely a

lunar mansion or star cluster constellation of Pushya ("Poosam" in Tamil, "Pooyam" in Malayalam) shining brightest and on the ascendent. This Pushya star Nakshatra asterism is also ruled by the planet Saturn, has the blue sapphire (neelam mani) gem birthstone, the white pearl based on Rāśi, and is the best time for buying gold, learning from a guru, and collecting and administering Ayurveda and Siddha medicinal herbs.[308][309][310][311][312]

Adam's Peak, or "Sivan Oli Pada Malai" in Tamil (Siva's One Foot Mountain) features as "Uli Pada" of the Malea mountain range on Ptolemy's Taprobana map, and features a large footprint in a shrine that Hindus believe is that of the god Shiva. In Vyasa's Mahābhārata (3:88), a Sanskrit passage on the words of Saptarishi Pulastya (Visravas and Agastya's father) relates to the island and Hindu worship at the Koneswaram temple, describing indigenous and continental pilgrims across the island, including the shrine, before the Anuradhapura period. "Listen, O son of Kunti, I shall now describe Tamraparni. In that asylum the gods had undergone penances impelled by the desire of obtaining salvation. In that region also is the lake of Gokarna, celebrated over the three worlds...".[43] This literature elaborates on the two ashrams of the Siddhar Agastya on Tamraparni island – one near Trincomalee bay (now located at Kankuveli) and another atop the Malaya mountain range (that situated near Adam's Peak).[43][313] The Dakshina Kailasa Maanmiam details one of Agastya's routes, from the Vedaranyam forests of Point Calimere to the now ruined Tirukarasai Parameswara Siva temple on the banks of the Mahaveli Ganga river, then to Koneswaram, then Ketheeswaram of Manthai to worship, before finally settling at Pothigai. The Siva-worshipping Siddhar Patanjali's birth in Trincomalee and Agastya's presence points to Yoga Sun Salutation originating on the sacred promontory of the city.[314][315][316][317] The Tamraparniyan sea route was adopted by the Siddhar alchemist Bogar in his travels from South India to China via Sri Lanka; a disciple of Agastya's teachings, Bogar himself taught meditation, alchemy, yantric designs and Kriya yoga at the Kataragama Murugan shrine in the third century CE, inscribing a yantric geometric design etched onto a metallic plate and installing it at the sanctum sanctorum of the Kataragama complex.[318][319] Punch-marked coins from 500 BCE discovered beneath a temple in Kadiramalai-Kandarodai bear the image of the deity Lakshmi.[320][321][322] The inscriptions and ruins of Kankuveli alongside Vyasa's Mahabharata reveal the umbilical relationship of Kankuveli's Agastya ashram with the Siva temple of Koneswaram and his father Pulastya, relating its high sanctity and popularity with Tamraparni's natives. In fact, the Matsya Purana describes Agastya as a native of Sri Lanka.[323]

Vajrayana Buddhism
where Tamraparniyan monks from Sri Lanka came to reside and left their votive seal

These Hindu features were often described by their Hellenistic/Roman counterparts in early Western accounts. Pliny the Elder confirms that even by his time, inhabitants of Taprobane island worship "

temples.[328][329] Koneswaram of Trincomalee was described as the "Rome of the Pagans of the Orient" by the seventeenth century, before its destruction.[330] Furthermore, bronze sculptures of Agastya have been discovered from the 8th-9th century in Sumatra.[331] The Dinaya inscription of Central Java mentions King Gajayana consecrating an image of Agastya in a temple in 760 CE and that blessings should be showered on Agastya's descendents in Java. Agastya came to reside in Java, according to the Old Javanese Ramayana set before the rise of Hinduism in Indonesia in the first century CE, demonstrating a very ancient extension of the Tamraparniyan socio-political culture to Indonesia.[332]

A scion of one of Tamraparni's oldest

Yaksha kingdom. Featured in the Puranas, Ramayana and Mahabharata, many ancient sculptures and other depictions of these figures adorn temples across Sri Lanka, famously at Isurumuniya in Anuradhapura where they once lived. Following the war and usurping of Lanka by his half-brother Ravana, Kubera moved to rule the city of Alaka in Sigiriya, Sri Lanka, where he was followed by Tamraparniyan natives including the Gandharvas, Yakshas and Yakshinis, Rakshasas, and Kinnaras.[citation needed] Archaeological excavations revealing the beginnings of the Iron Age in Sri Lanka have been found at Anuradhapura, where a large city–settlement was founded before 900 BCE. The settlement was about 15 hectares in 900 BCE, but by 700 BCE it had expanded to 50 hectares, while a similar site from the same period has also been discovered near Aligala in Sigiriya. Radiocarbon dating increasingly matches the lower boundary of the protohistoric Early Iron Age in Tamraparni island to match that of South India, at least as early as 1200 BCE.[333][334] In Hindu tradition, following the defeat of Ravana, Kubera is at this point elevated to divine status and worshipped as the God of wealth and comes to reside in Mount Kailash of Tibet. He is regarded as the regent of the North (Dik-pala), and a protector of the world (Lokapala).[335] The Tamraparni river is one of the beautiful sights a messenger will see in Kalidasa's Meghadūta, a story of one of Kubera's exiled Yaksha servants sending a message back to his wife in Alaka. This story's Yaksha figures feature on the entrances of many ancient buildings in Sri Lanka and has since spawned many inspired naratives of the "Sandesha Kavya" genre, including the Kokila Sandeśa, the Hamsa-Sandesha and the Haṃsadūta.[336][337]

Several shrines to Agastya exist along the banks of the river Tamraparni, as does the Kubera Theertham. In Vyasa's Tambaravani Mahatmayam, the holiness of the river is shared with the Sanskrit shloka Smaraṇāt darśanāt dhyānāt snānāt pānādapi dhruvam, Karmavicchedinī sarvajantūnāṃ mokṣhadāyinī meaning "Tamraparni is the river, which destroys the

Murugan taught Agastya the Tamil language, who then constructed a Tamil grammar – Agattiyam – at Pothigai mountains.[11][12][13]

The

Alwarthirunagari Temple on its bank. The renowned Hindu yogi, medic and guru Sivananda Saraswati was born on the banks of the river.[344] An annual Pushkaram takes place for the river in the middle of October. The temple theerthams are the holy Tamraparni River and the Kubera theertham.[345]

Buddhism and Jainism

The Buddha, according to the Mahavamsa, made three visits to Tamraparni, stopping at Nainativu and Kalyani. Both towns were strongholds of the Naga nation. On his second visit, the chronicle states he settled a dispute between the Naga kings Chulodara and Mahodara (uncle and nephew), over a gem set throne which he was then offered.

Third Sangam of the Pandyan king Nedunjeliyan I of Tamilakam, an important character of the Silappatikaram which was set in the three capitals of the Muventar. The epic features many faiths including Buddhism being practiced in South India during this time. Soon after Buddhism's arrival in Tamraparni, the Manimekhalai, Purananuru and Mahavamsa capture the destruction caused by the 3rd century BC Indian Ocean tsunami, during which Kelani Tissa ruled Maya Rata from Kalyani and Kavan Tissa was in Ruhuna. This tsunami had destroyed the early Chola capital of Puhar, following which the Chola figures Sena and Guttika
, as well as Elara came to rule the north of Tamraparni from Anuradhapura.

Kubera was incorporated into the Jain and Buddhist pantheons with the patronym Vaiśravaṇa (Sanskrit) / Vessavaṇa (Pali) / Vesamuni (Sinhala), meaning "Son of Vaisravas", and syncretised as one of the latter religion's Four Heavenly Kings.[20][349] In the Buddhist text Jataka-mala by Aryasura, about the Buddha's previous lives, Agastya is co-opted and included as an example of his predecessor in the seventh chapter. The Agastya-Jataka story is carved as a relief in the Ajanta Caves of Maharashtra and the Borobudur of Java, the world's largest early medieval era Mahayana Buddhist temple.[350][351] The Divyāvadāna or "Divine narratives" a Sanskrit anthology of Buddhist tales from the 2nd century, calls Sri Lanka "Tamradvipa" and gives an account of a merchant's son who met Yakkhinis, dressed like celestial nymphs (gandharva), in Sri Lanka.[20] The Valahassa Jataka relates the story of the arrival of five hundred shipwrecked merchants, from

demons" and the story of Kuveni.[20]

Agastya's shrine on Pothigai Hills at Tamraparni river's source is important in the context of the Hindu Ramayana according to the Manimekhalai, which is the first Tamil literature to mention Agastya, while simultaneously conceiving and anticipating South India (Tamilakam), Sri Lanka and Java as a single Buddhist religious landscape.

Thiruppugazh calls this place "Kanthathiri", the Sinhalese "Girihandu Seya" and Ptolemy calls it "Thalakori".[358][359][360][361][195] The Statue of Tara, a famous statue of Avalokiteswara's consort Tara of the same time period was discovered on the east coast between Trincomalee and Batticaloa.[362]

"Tamraparniya" is a name given to one of the

Anguttara Nikaya, "tambapannidlpe anurddhapuram majjhimadeso nama" meaning "on Tamraparni island, the city of Anuradhapura serves as the "middle country".[374]

Despite the Mahāvihāra's South Indian connection, the largest and most popular Tamraparniyan Buddhist tradition among the island's indigenous Tamils was the

Mahāyāna Sthaviras," and the Mahāvihāra tradition as the "Hīnayāna Sthaviras."[382][383] Vajrabodhi, the celebrated Tantrist Mahayana teacher near Pothigai hills, preached in central and South Sri Lanka, including at Adam's Peak and the Abhayagiri vihara, before journeying to Java, the Malay archipelego and China; he enjoyed the patronage of Siva devotee Narasimhavarman II and many Sri Lankan kings.[384] To date, the Ratubaka plateau inscription of 792 AD in Central Java near Prambanan describes a monastery there named after the "Abhayagiri Vihara of the Simhala ascetics", who may have participated in its construction. By the 7th century CE, more rulers of Sri Lanka gave support and patronage to the Abhayagiri Theravādins, and travelers such as Faxian saw the Abhayagiri Theravādins as the main Buddhist tradition in Sri Lanka, before the Tamraparniyan fraternities were forced in unison and the Abhayagiri worship decimated under Parakramabahu I.[385][386]

A fragmentary slab inscription of Sundara Mahadevi, the queen consort of Vikramabahu I of Polonnaruwa in the 12th century, states that a great Sthaviravadin of the Sinhalese Sangha by the name of Ananda was instrumental in "purifying the order" in Tambarattha.[22] In the fifteenth century, the monk Chappada from Arimaddana city, Pagan, Myanmar came to the "island of Tambapanni", where, according to the colophon of the Sankhepavannana he authored, he purified the sasana order in Sri Lanka with the help of the king Parakramabahu VI of Kotte whom he was very dear to, in the city of Jayavardhanapura and he "caused a sima to be consecrated, according to the vinaya rules and avoiding all unlawful acts."[387] Paramatthavinicchaya's author Anuraddha, according to its colophon, was a monk born in Kanchipuram who lived during the time of writing the poem in Tanjanagara of "Tambarattha", while Buddharakkhita states in Jinalankara that Anuraddha had a high reputation among the learned men of Coliya-Tambarattha.[22]

Other mentions

Old writers often speak of the

dugongs and manatees.[393] Seven of the "mermaid" species were reportedly netted by native fishermen in 1560.[394]

The Greek name was adopted in medieval Irish (

Gaedel, ancestors of today's Irish, had sojourned in their previous migrations.[395][396]

The name remained in use in early modern Europe, alongside the Persianate Serendip, with Traprobana mentioned in the first strophe of the

epic poem Os Lusíadas by Luís de Camões. John Milton borrowed this for his epic poem Paradise Lost and Miguel de Cervantes mentions a fantastic Trapobana in Don Quixote.[397] In the 1731 French novel Life of Sethos, Taken from Private Memoirs of the Ancient Egyptians by Jean Terrasson, kings and fleets of Taprobane feature with the protagonist, Shebitku in trysts involving Ethiopian soldiers, Tyre and Phoenician naval commanders, and Egyptian priests on his voyages of discovery, conquest and civilization.[398]

References

  1. ^
    ISBN 9788175741898
    .
  2. ^ a b c K. Sivasubramaniam – 2009. Fisheries in Sri Lanka: anthropological and biological aspects, Volume 1. "It is considered most probable that the name was borrowed by the Greeks, from the Tamil 'Tamraparni' for which the Pali...to Ceylon, by the Tamil immigrants from Tinnelvely district through which ran the river called to this date, Tamaravarani"
  3. ISBN 9789385563164
    . Retrieved 1 July 2019.
  4. ^ a b c d Leelananda Prematilleka, Sudharshan Seneviatne – 1990: Perspectives in archaeology: "The names Tambapanni and Tamra- parni are in fact the Prakrit and Sanskrit rendering of Tamil Tan porunai"
  5. ^ a b John R. Marr – 1985 The Eight Anthologies: A Study in Early Tamil Literature. Ettukai. Institute of Asian Studies
  6. ^ The Maha Bodhi (1983) – Volume 91 – Page 16
  7. ^ Sakti Kali Basu (2004). Development of Iconography in Pre-Gupta Vaṅga – Page 31
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External links

[[Category:History of Sri Lanka]] [[Category:History of Tamil Nadu]] [[Category:Tamil history]] [[Category:Sri Lankan Tamil history]]

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