User:Cinderella157/sandbox 2
Modern paganism, also known as contemporary paganism[1] and neopaganism,[2] is a collective term for religions influenced by the various historical pre-Christian beliefs of pre-modern peoples in Europe and adjacent areas of North Africa and the Near East. Although they share similarities, contemporary Pagan movements are diverse, and do not share a single set of beliefs, practices, or texts.[3] Scholars of religion characterise these traditions as new religious movements. Most academics who study the phenomenon treat it as a movement that is divided into different religions; others characterize it as a single religion of which different Pagan faiths are denominations.
Prominent modern Pagan religions include
Contemporary Paganism has sometimes
Terminology
Definition
There is "considerable disagreement as to the precise definition and proper usage" of the term "modern Paganism".[6] Even within the academic field of Pagan studies, there is no consensus about how contemporary Paganism can best be defined.[7] Most scholars describe modern Paganism as a broad array of different religions, not a single one.[8] The category of modern Paganism could be compared to the categories of Abrahamic religions and Indian religions in its structure.[9] A second, less common definition found within Pagan studies—promoted by the religious studies scholars Michael F. Strmiska and Graham Harvey—characterises modern Paganism as a single religion, of which groups like Wicca, Druidry, and Heathenry are denominations.[10] This perspective has been critiqued, given the lack of core commonalities in issues such as theology, cosmology, ethics, afterlife, holy days, or ritual practices within the Pagan movement.[10]
Contemporary Paganism has been defined as "a collection of modern religious, spiritual, and magical traditions that are self-consciously inspired by the pre-Judaic, pre-Christian, and pre-Islamic belief systems of Europe, North Africa, and the Near East."[1] Thus it has been said that although it is "a highly diverse phenomenon", "an identifiable common element" nevertheless runs through the Pagan movement.[1] Strmiska described Paganism as a movement "dedicated to reviving the polytheistic, nature-worshipping pagan religions of pre-Christian Europe and adapting them for the use of people in modern societies."[11] The religious studies scholar Wouter Hanegraaff characterised Paganism as encompassing "all those modern movements which are, first, based on the conviction that what Christianity has traditionally denounced as idolatry and superstition actually represents/represented a profound and meaningful religious worldview and, secondly, that a religious practice based on this worldview can and should be revitalized in our modern world."[12]
Discussing the relationship between the different Pagan religions, religious studies scholars Kaarina Aitamurto and Scott Simpson wrote that they were "like siblings who have taken different paths in life but still retain many visible similarities".
Some practitioners eschew the term "Pagan" altogether, preferring more specific names for their religion, such as "Heathen" or "Wiccan".
Various Pagans who are active in Pagan studies, such as
Reappropriation of "paganism"
Many scholars have favored the use of "Neopaganism" to describe this phenomenon, with the prefix "neo-" serving to distinguish the modern religions from their ancient, pre-Christian forerunners.[27] Some Pagan practitioners also prefer "Neopaganism", believing that the prefix conveys the reformed nature of the religion, such as its rejection of practices such as animal sacrifice.[27] Conversely, most Pagans do not use the word "Neopagan",[19] with some expressing disapproval of it, arguing that the term "neo" offensively disconnects them from what they perceive as their pre-Christian forebears.[18] To avoid causing offense, many scholars in the English-speaking world have begun using the prefixes "modern" or "contemporary" rather than "neo".[28] Several Pagan studies scholars, such as Ronald Hutton and Sabina Magliocco, have emphasized the use of the upper-case "Paganism" to distinguish the modern movement from the lower-case "paganism", a term commonly used for pre-Christian belief systems.[29] In 2015, Rountree stated that this lower case/upper case division was "now [the] convention" in Pagan studies.[19] Among the critics of the upper-case P are York and Andras Corban-Arthen, president of the ECER. Capitalizing the word, they argue, makes "Paganism" appear as the name of a cohesive religion rather than a generic religious category, and comes off as naive, dishonest or as an unwelcome attempt to disrupt the spontaneity and vernacular quality of the movement.[30]
The term "neo-pagan" was coined in the 19th century in reference to
According to Strmiska, the reappropriation of the term "pagan" by modern Pagans served as "a deliberate act of defiance" against "traditional, Christian-dominated society", allowing them to use it as a source of "pride and power".[18] In this, he compared it to the gay liberation movement's reappropriation of the term "queer", which had formerly been used only as a term of homophobic abuse.[18] He suggests that part of the term's appeal lay in the fact that a large proportion of Pagan converts were raised in Christian families, and that by embracing the term "pagan", a word long used for what was "rejected and reviled by Christian authorities", a convert summarizes "in a single word his or her definitive break" from Christianity.[33] He further suggests that the term gained appeal through its depiction in romanticist and 19th-century European nationalist literature, where it had been imbued with "a certain mystery and allure",[34] and that by embracing the word "pagan" modern Pagans defy past religious intolerance to honor the pre-Christian peoples of Europe and emphasize those societies' cultural and artistic achievements.[35]
Divisions
Ethnicity and region
For some Pagan groups, ethnicity is central to their religion, and some restrict membership to a single ethnic group.[36] Some critics have described this approach as a form of racism.[36] Other Pagan groups allow people of any ethnicity, on the view that the gods and goddesses of a particular region can call anyone to their form of worship.[37] Some such groups feel a particular affinity for the pre-Christian belief systems of a particular region with which they have no ethnic link because they see themselves as reincarnations of people from that society.[38] There is greater focus on ethnicity within the Pagan movements in continental Europe than within the Pagan movements in North America and the British Isles.[39] Such ethnic Paganisms have variously been seen as responses to concerns about foreign ideologies, globalization, cosmopolitanism, and anxieties about cultural erosion.[40][41]
Although they acknowledged that it was "a highly simplified model", Aitamurto and Simpson wrote that there was "some truth" to the claim that leftist-oriented forms of Paganism were prevalent in North America and the British Isles while rightist-oriented forms of Paganism were prevalent in Central and Eastern Europe.[15] They noted that in these latter regions, Pagan groups placed an emphasis on "the centrality of the nation, the ethnic group, or the tribe".[13] Rountree wrote that it was wrong to assume that "expressions of Paganism can be categorized straight-forwardly according to region", but acknowledged that some regional trends were visible, such as the impact of Catholicism on Paganism in Southern Europe.[42]
Eclecticism and reconstructionism
"We might say that Reconstructionist Pagans romanticize the past, while Eclectic Pagans idealize the future. In the first case, there is a deeply felt need to connect with the past as a source of spiritual strength and wisdom; in the second case, there is the idealistic hope that a spirituality of nature can be gleaned from ancient sources and shared with all humanity."
— Religious studies scholar Michael Strmiska[43]
Another division within modern Paganism rests on differing attitudes to the source material surrounding pre-Christian belief systems.
On the reconstructionist side can be placed those movements which often favour the designation "Native Faith", including
Strmiska also suggests that this division could be seen as being based on "discourses of identity", with reconstructionists emphasizing a deep-rooted sense of place and people, and eclectics embracing a universality and openness toward humanity and the Earth.[47]Strmiska nevertheless notes that this reconstructionist-eclectic division is "neither as absolute nor as straightforward as it might appear". In discussing Asatro – a form of Heathenry based in Denmark – Matthew Amster notes that it did not fit clearly within such a framework, because while seeking a reconstructionist form of historical accuracy, Asatro nevertheless retains a strong christian influence; with a modern construction of dogma, practices, religious titles, literature & an over emphasis on acknowledging & the worship of only the
Naturalism, ecocentrism, and secular paths
Some Pagans distinguish their beliefs and practices as a form of religious naturalism or naturalist philosophy,[53] including those who identify as humanistic or atheopagans. Many such Pagans aim for an explicitly ecocentric practice, which may overlap with scientific pantheism.[54]
Historicity
"Modern Pagans are reviving, reconstructing, and reimagining religious traditions of the past that were suppressed for a very long time, even to the point of being almost totally obliterated... Thus, with only a few possible exceptions, today's Pagans cannot claim to be continuing religious traditions handed down in an unbroken line from ancient times to the present. They are modern people with a great reverence for the spirituality of the past, making a new religion – a modern Paganism – from the remnants of the past, which they interpret, adapt, and modify according to modern ways of thinking."
— Religious studies scholar Michael Strmiska[55]
Although inspired by the pre-Christian belief systems of the past, modern Paganism is not the same phenomenon as these lost traditions and in many respects differs from them considerably.[55] Strmiska stresses that modern Paganism is a "new", "modern" religious movement, even if some of its content derives from ancient sources.[55] Contemporary Paganism as practiced in the United States in the 1990s has been described as "a synthesis of historical inspiration and present-day creativity".[56]
Beliefs
Beliefs and practices vary widely among different Pagan groups; however, there are a series of core principles common to most, if not all, forms of modern paganism.[60] The English academic Graham Harvey noted that Pagans "rarely indulge in theology".[61]
Polytheism
One principle of the Pagan movement is polytheism, the belief in and veneration of multiple gods or goddesses.[60][61] Within the Pagan movement, there can be found many deities, both male and female, who have various associations and embody forces of nature, aspects of culture, and facets of human psychology.[62] These deities are typically depicted in human form, and are viewed as having human faults.[62] They are therefore not seen as perfect, but rather are venerated as being wise and powerful.[63] Pagans feel that this understanding of the gods reflected the dynamics of life on Earth, allowing for the expression of humour.[63]
One view in the Pagan community is that these polytheistic deities are not viewed as literal entities, but as
It is its inclusion of female deity which distinguishes Pagan religions from their Abrahamic counterparts.[65] In Wicca, male and female deities are typically balanced out in a form of
There are exceptions to polytheism in Paganism, As noted above, Pagans with naturalistic worldviews may not believe in or work with deities at all.
Pagan religions commonly exhibit a metaphysical concept of an underlying order that pervades the universe, such as the concept of
Animism and pantheism
A key part of most Pagan worldviews is the holistic concept of a universe that is interconnected. This is connected with a belief in either pantheism or panentheism. In both beliefs, divinity and the material or spiritual universe are one.[71] For pagans, pantheism means that "divinity is inseparable from nature and that deity is immanent in nature".[57]
Dennis D. Carpenter noted that the belief in a pantheistic or panentheistic deity has led to the idea of interconnectedness playing a key part in pagans' worldviews.[71] The prominent Reclaiming priestess Starhawk related that a core part of goddess-centred pagan witchcraft was "the understanding that all being is interrelated, that we are all linked with the cosmos as parts of one living organism. What affects one of us affects us all."[72]
Another pivotal belief in the contemporary Pagan movement is that of
Animism was also a concept common to many pre-Christian European religions, and in adopting it, contemporary Pagans are attempting to "reenter the primeval worldview" and participate in a view of cosmology "that is not possible for most Westerners after childhood".[75]
Nature worship
All Pagan movements place great emphasis on the
Many Pagans hold that different lands and/or
While the Pagan community has tremendous variety in political views spanning the whole of the political spectrum, environmentalism is often a common feature.[77]
Such views have also led many pagans to revere the planet Earth as
Practices
Ritual
Pagan ritual can take place in both a public and private setting.[70] Contemporary Pagan ritual is typically geared towards "facilitating altered states of awareness or shifting mind-sets".[79] In order to induce such altered states of consciousness, pagans utilize such elements as drumming, visualization, chanting, singing, dancing, and meditation.[79] American folklorist Sabina Magliocco came to the conclusion, based upon her ethnographic fieldwork in California that certain Pagan beliefs "arise from what they experience during religious ecstasy".[80]
Sociologist Margot Adler highlighted how several Pagan groups, like the Reformed Druids of North America and the Erisian movement incorporate a great deal of play in their rituals rather than having them be completely serious and somber. She noted that there are those who would argue that "the Pagan community is one of the only spiritual communities that is exploring humor, joy, abandonment, even silliness and outrageousness as valid parts of spiritual experience".[81]
Domestic worship typically takes place in the home and is carried out by either an individual or family group.[82] It typically involves offerings – including bread, cake, flowers, fruit, milk, beer, or wine – being given to images of deities, often accompanied with prayers and songs and the lighting of candles and incense.[82] Common Pagan devotional practices have thus been compared to similar practices in Hinduism, Buddhism, Shinto, Roman Catholicism, and Orthodox Christianity, but contrasted with that in Protestantism, Judaism, and Islam.[83] Although animal sacrifice was a common part of pre-Christian ritual in Europe, it is rarely practiced in contemporary Paganism.[82]
Festival
Paganism's public rituals are generally calendrical,[70] although the pre-Christian festivals that Pagans use as a basis varied across Europe.[84] Nevertheless, common to almost all Pagan religions is an emphasis on an agricultural cycle and respect for the dead.[82] Common Pagan festivals include those marking the summer solstice and winter solstice as well as the start of spring and the harvest.[70] In Wicca, a Wheel of the Year has been developed which typically involves eight seasonal festivals.[82]
Magic
The belief in
Among those who practice magic are Wiccans, those who identify as Neopagan Witches, and practitioners of some forms of revivalist Neo-druidism, the rituals of which are at least partially based upon those of ceremonial magic and freemasonry.[86]
History
Early modern period
Discussions about prevailing, returning or new forms of paganism have existed throughout the modern period. Before the 20th century, Christian institutions regularly used paganism as a term for everything outside of Christianity, Judaism and—from the 18th century—Islam. They frequently associated paganism with idolatry, magic and a general concept of "false religion", which for example has made Catholics and Protestants accuse each other of being pagans.
19th and early 20th centuries
Great God! I'd rather be
A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn;
So might I, standing on this pleasant lea,
Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn;
Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea;
Or hear old Triton blow his wreathèd horn.
— William Wordsworth, "The World Is Too Much with Us", lines 9-14
One of the origins of modern Pagan movements lies in the romanticist and national liberation movements that developed in Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries.[90] The publications of studies into European folk customs and culture by scholars like Johann Gottfried Herder and Jacob Grimm resulted in a wider interest in these subjects and a growth in cultural self-consciousness.[90] At the time, it was commonly believed that almost all such folk customs were survivals from the pre-Christian period.[91] These attitudes would also be exported to North America by European immigrants in these centuries.[91]
The Romantic movement of the 18th century led to the re-discovery of
"The rise of modern Paganism is both a result and a measure of increased religious liberty and rising tolerance for religious diversity in modern societies, a liberty and tolerance made possible by the curbing of the sometimes oppressive power wielded by Christian authorities to compel obedience and participation in centuries past. To say it another way, modern Paganism is one of the happy stepchildren of modern multiculturalism and social pluralism."
— Religious studies scholar Michael Strmiska[93]
The rise of modern Paganism was aided by the decline in Christianity throughout many parts of Europe and North America,[91] as well as by the concomitant decline in enforced religious conformity and greater freedom of religion that developed, allowing people to explore a wider range of spiritual options and form religious organisations that could operate free from legal persecution.[94]
Historian Ronald Hutton has argued that many of the motifs of 20th century neo-Paganism may be traced back to the utopian, mystical counter-cultures of the late-Victorian and Edwardian periods (also extending in some instances into the 1920s), via the works of amateur folklorists, popular authors, poets, political radicals and alternative lifestylers.
Prior to the spread of the 20th-century neopagan movements, a notable instance of self-identified paganism was in Sioux writer Zitkala-sa's essay "Why I Am A Pagan". Published in the Atlantic Monthly in 1902, the Native American activist and writer outlined her rejection of Christianity (referred to as "the new superstition") in favor of a harmony with nature embodied by the Great Spirit. She further recounted her mother's abandonment of Sioux religion and the unsuccessful attempts of a "native preacher" to get her to attend the village church.[95]
In the 1920s
Late 20th century
The 1960s and 1970s saw a resurgence in
The 1980s and 1990s also saw an increasing interest in serious academic research and reconstructionist pagan traditions. The establishment and growth of the Internet in the 1990s brought rapid growth to these, and other pagan movements.[99] By the time of the collapse of the former Soviet Union in 1991, freedom of religion was legally established across Russia and a number of other newly independent states, allowing for the growth in both Christian and non-Christian religions.[100]
Religious paths and movements
Goddess movement
Goddess Spirituality, which is also known as the Goddess movement, is a Pagan religion in which a singular, monotheistic Goddess is given predominance. Goddess Spirituality revolves around the sacredness of the female form, and of aspects of women's lives that adherents say have been traditionally neglected in Western society, such as menstruation, sexuality, and maternity.[101]
The Goddess movement draws some of its inspiration from the work of archaeologists such as Marija Gimbutas,[102][103][104][105] whose interpretation of artifacts excavated from "Old Europe" points to societies of Neolithic Europe that were matristic or goddess-centered worshipping a female deity of three primary aspects,[106] which has inspired some neopagan worshippers of the Triple Goddess.
Adherents of the Goddess Spirituality movement typically envision a history of the world that is different from traditional narratives about the past, emphasising the role of women rather than that of men. According to this view,
Heathenry
Heathenism, also known as Germanic Neopaganism, refers to a series of contemporary Pagan traditions based on the historical religions, culture and literature of Germanic-speaking Europe. Heathenry is spread out across northwestern Europe, North America and Australasia, where the descendants of historic Germanic-speaking people now live.[108]
Many Heathen groups adopt variants of Norse mythology as a basis for their beliefs, conceiving of the Earth as on the great world tree Yggdrasil. Heathens believe in multiple polytheistic deities adopted from historical Germanic mythologies. Most are polytheistic realists, believing that the deities are real entities, while others view them as Jungian archetypes.[109]
Druidry
Neo-Druidry is the second-largest pagan path after Wicca,[
Eco-paganism and Unitarian Universalism
Eco-paganism and Eco-magic, which are offshoots of
Some Unitarian Universalists are eclectic pagans. Unitarian Universalists look for spiritual inspiration in a wide variety of religious beliefs. The Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans, or CUUPs, encourages its chapters to "use practices familiar to members who attend for worship services but not to follow only one tradition of paganism".[112]
Occultism and ethnic mysticism
In 1925, the Czech esotericist Franz Sättler founded the pagan religion Adonism, devoted to the ancient Greek god Adonis, whom Sättler equated with the Christian Satan, and which purported that the end of the world would come in 2000. Adonism largely died out in the 1930s, but remained an influence on the German occult scene.[113]
LGBT paganism
The western
In response, groups and sects inclusive of or specific to LGBT people have developed. Theologian Jone Salomonsen noted in the 1980s and 1990s that the
Trans exclusion can also be found in Alexandrian Wicca, whose founder views trans individuals as melancholy people who should seek other beliefs due to the Alexandrian focus on heterosexual reproduction and duality.[122]
Reconstructionism
In contrast to the eclectic traditions,
Wicca and modern witchcraft
Wicca is the largest form of modern Paganism,[41] as well as the best-known[123] and most extensively studied.[59]
Religious studies scholar Graham Harvey noted that the poem "Charge of the Goddess" remains central to the liturgy of most Wiccan groups. Originally written by Wiccan High Priestess Doreen Valiente in the mid-1950s, the poem allows Wiccans to gain wisdom and experience deity in "the ordinary things in life".[124]
Historian
In the 1990s, Wiccan beliefs and practices were used as a partial basis for a number of US films and television series, such as
Semitic neopaganism
Beit Asherah (the house of the Goddess Asherah) was one of the first Neopagan synagogues, founded in the early 1990s by Stephanie Fox, Steven Posch, and Magenta Griffiths (Lady Magenta). Magenta Griffiths is High Priestess of the Beit Asherah coven, and a former board member of the Covenant of the Goddess.[128]
Vattisen Yaly
The
Demographics
Establishing precise figures on Paganism is difficult. Due to the secrecy and fear of
Europe
Neopagan and other folk religion movements have gained a significant[citation needed] following on the eastern fringes of Europe, especially in the Caucasus and the Volga region.
Caucasus region
Among Circassians, the
Volga region
The
A neopagan movement drawing from various syncretic practices that had survived among the Christianised Mari people was initiated in 1990,[142] and was estimated in 2004 to have won the adherence of 2% of the Mordvin people.[143]
Western Europe
A study by
A smaller number is suggested by the results of the
The 2001 UK Census figures did not allow an accurate breakdown of traditions within the Pagan heading, as a campaign by the Pagan Federation before the census encouraged Wiccans, Heathens, Druids and others all to use the same write-in term 'Pagan' in order to maximise the numbers reported. The
Census figures in Ireland do not provide a breakdown of religions outside of the major Christian denominations and other major world religions. A total of 22,497 people stated Other Religion in the 2006 census; and a rough estimate is that there were 2,000–3,000 practicing pagans in Ireland in 2009. Numerous pagan groups – primarily Wiccan and Druidic – exist in Ireland though none is officially recognised by the Government. Irish Paganism is often strongly concerned with issues of place and language.[λ]
North America
Socio-economic breakdown of U.S. Pagans in 1999 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Canada does not provide extremely detailed records of religious adherence. Its
The United States government does not directly collect religious information. As a result such information is provided by religious institutions and other third-party statistical organisations.
According to Helen A. Berger's 1995 survey "The Pagan Census", most American Pagans are middle-class, educated, and live in urban/suburban areas on the East and West coasts.[144]
Oceania
Breakdown of Australians[147] | |
---|---|
Classifications | Adherents |
Animism | 780 |
Druidism | 1,049 |
Paganism | 16,851 |
Pantheism | 1,391 |
Nature Religions | 3,599 |
Witchcraft (incl. Wicca) | 8,413 |
Total | 32,083 |
In the
New Zealander affiliations[148] | |
---|---|
Groups | Adherents |
Druidism |
192 |
Nature religion | 4,530 |
Wicca | 2,082 |
Total | 6,804 |
In 2006, there were at least 6804 (0.164%) Pagans among New Zealand's population of approximately 4 million.[149] Respondents were given the option to select one or more religious affiliations.[148]
Paganism in society
Propagation
Based upon her study of the pagan community in the United States, the sociologist
Folklorist
Many pagans in North America encounter the movement through their involvement in other hobbies; particularly popular with US Pagans are "golden age"-type pastimes such as the Society for Creative Anachronism (SCA), Star Trek fandom, Doctor Who fandom and comic book fandom. Other manners in which many North American pagans have got involved with the movement are through political or ecological activism, such as "vegetarian groups, health food stores" or feminist university courses.[155]
Adler went on to note that from those she interviewed and surveyed in the US, she could identify a number of common factors that led to people getting involved in Paganism: the beauty, vision and imagination that was found within their beliefs and rituals, a sense of intellectual satisfaction and personal growth that they imparted, their support for environmentalism or feminism, and a sense of freedom.[156]
Class, gender and ethnicity
Based upon her work in the United States, Adler found that the pagan movement was "very diverse" in its class and ethnic background.[157] She went on to remark that she had encountered pagans in jobs that ranged from "fireman to PhD chemist" but that the one thing that she thought made them into an "elite" was as avid readers, something that she found to be very common within the pagan community despite the fact that avid readers constituted less than 20% of the general population of the United States at the time.[158] Magliocco came to a somewhat different conclusion based upon her ethnographic research of pagans in California, remarking that the majority were "white, middle-class, well-educated urbanites" but that they were united in finding "artistic inspiration" within "folk and indigenous spiritual traditions".[159]
The sociologist Regina Oboler examined the role of gender in the US Pagan community, arguing that although the movement had been constant in its support for the equality of men and women ever since its foundation, there was still an essentialist view of gender engrained within it, with female deities being accorded traditional western feminine traits and male deities being similarly accorded what western society saw as masculine traits.[160]
Relationship with New Age
"Neopagan practices highlight the centrality of the relationship between humans and nature and reinvent religions of the past, while New Agers are more interested in transforming individual consciousness and shaping the future."
— Religious studies scholar Sarah Pike.[161]
Since the 1960s and 1970s, contemporary Paganism, or Neo-Paganism, and the then emergent
Many Pagans have sought to distance themselves from the New Age movement, even using "New Age" as an insult within their community, while conversely many involved in the New Age have expressed criticism of Paganism for emphasizing the material world over the spiritual.[165] Many Pagans have expressed criticism of the high fees charged by New Age teachers, something not typically present in the Pagan movement.[168]
Relationship with Hinduism
Because of their common links to the Proto-Indo-European culture, many adherents of modern Paganism have come to regard Hinduism as a spiritual relative. Some modern Pagan literature prominently features comparative religion involving European and Indian traditions. The ECER has made efforts to establish mutual support with Hindu groups, as has the Lithuanian Romuva movement.[169]
In India, a prominent figure who made similar efforts was the
Prejudice and opposition
In the
Regarding to European paganism, In Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives Michael F. Strmiska writes that "in Pagan magazines, websites, and Internet discussion venues, Christianity is frequently denounced as an antinatural, antifemale, sexually and culturally repressive, guilt-ridden, and authoritarian religion that has fostered intolerance, hypocrisy, and persecution throughout the world."
Some Christian authors have published books criticizing modern Paganism, [35] while other Christian critics have equated Paganism with Satanism, which is often portrayed as such in mainstream entertainment industry.[175]
In areas such as the US
Pagan studies
The earliest academic studies of contemporary Paganism were published in the late 1970s and 1980s by scholars like Margot Adler, Marcello Truzzi and Tanya Luhrmann, although it would not be until the 1990s that the actual multidisciplinary academic field of Pagan studies properly developed, pioneered by academics such as Graham Harvey and Chas S. Clifton. Increasing academic interest in Paganism has been attributed to the new religious movement's increasing public visibility, as it began interacting with the interfaith movement and holding large public celebrations at sites like Stonehenge.[177]
The first international academic conference on the subject of Pagan studies was held at the
The relationship between Pagan studies scholars and some practising Pagans has at times been strained. The Australian academic and practising Pagan Caroline Jane Tully argues that many Pagans can react negatively to new scholarship regarding historical pre-Christian societies, believing that it is a threat to the structure of their beliefs and to their "sense of identity". She furthermore argues that some of those dissatisfied Pagans lashed out against academics as a result, particularly on the Internet.[180]
Criticism
Neopaganism has been criticized on a variety of fronts, ranging from pseudohistory to racial issues to institutional issues. As neopaganism is not a unified religion, it means that the criticisms of certain groups often do not apply to other groups. Criticisms of specific Neopagan groups range from criticisms of their belief in gender essentialism[181] to criticisms of their belief in Nationalism[182] to criticisms of the worldly focuses of pagan organizations.[165]
See also
- Habzism
- List of Neopagan movements
- Mari El
- Neopaganism in the United States
- Neopaganism in the United Kingdom
- Virginia Woolf and the Neo-Pagans
Notes
- ^ Religion data from the 2001 Canadian census at the Wayback Machine (archive index)
- ^ Todd, Douglas (December 2003). "University of Victoria chaplain marks solstice with pagan rituals". Vancouver Sun. Postmedia Network Inc. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
- ^ "Religion Statistics and Publications". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 19 January 2009. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
References
Footnotes
- ^ a b c d Doyle White 2016, p. 6.
- ^ Adler 2006, p. xiii.
- ^ Carpenter 1996, p. 40.
- ^ Adler 2006. pp. 3–4.
- JSTOR 10.1525/nr.1999.3.1.135. Retrieved 15 December 2020 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Strmiska 2005, p. 13.
- ^ Doyle White 2012, p. 15.
- ^ Doyle White 2012, pp. 16–17.
- ^ Doyle White 2012, p. 17.
- ^ a b Doyle White 2012, p. 16.
- ^ Strmiska 2005, p. 1.
- ^ Hanegraaff 1996, p. 77.
- ^ a b Aitamurto & Simpson 2013, p. 3.
- ^ a b c Doyle White 2016, p. 7.
- ^ a b Aitamurto & Simpson 2013, p. 2.
- ^ Rountree 2015, p. 1.
- ^ Strmiska 2005, pp. 15–16; Harvey 2005, pp. 84–85.
- ^ a b c d Strmiska 2005, p. 9.
- ^ a b c d Rountree 2015, p. 8.
- ^ Strmiska 2005, p. 14; Simpson & Filip 2013, pp. 34–35.
- ^ Simpson & Filip 2013, p. 27.
- ^ Simpson & Filip 2013, p. 38.
- ^ Strmiska 2005, p. 11; Doyle White 2012, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Doyle White 2012, p. 13.
- ^ Doyle White 2012, p. 14.
- ^ Strmiska 2005, pp. 11–12.
- ^ a b Simpson & Filip 2013, p. 32.
- ^ Simpson & Filip 2013, p. 32; Rountree 2015, p. 8.
- ^ Hutton 2003, p. xiv; Magliocco 2004, p. 19; Doyle White 2016, p. 8.
- ^ York 2016, p. 7.
- ^ Simpson & Filip 2013, p. 31.
- ^ Adler 2006.
- ^ Strmiska 2005, p. 7.
- ^ Strmiska 2005, pp. 7–8.
- ^ a b Strmiska 2005, p. 8.
- ^ a b Strmiska 2005, p. 17.
- ^ Strmiska 2005, pp. 17–18.
- ^ a b Strmiska 2005, p. 18.
- ^ Strmiska 2005, pp. 16–17.
- ^ Rountree 2015, p. 5.
- ^ a b Strmiska 2005, p. 47.
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- ^ Carpenter 1996. p. 47. Paganism, as I use the term, refers broadly to an emerging spiritual movement comprised of overlapping forms of spirituality referred to by many names (e.g. 'Neo-Paganism,' 'Paganism,' 'Neo-Pagan Witchcraft,' 'Witchcraft,' 'the Craft,' 'Wiccan Spirituality,' 'Wicca,' 'Wicce,' 'Wiccan religion,' 'The Old Religion,' 'Goddess Spirituality,' 'Nature Spirituality,' 'Nature Religion,' 'the Old Religion,' 'Goddess Spirituality,' 'Nature Spirituality,' 'Nature Religion,' 'Earth-Based Spirituality,' 'Earth Religion,' 'Ecofeminist Spirituality,' and 'Euro-American Shamanism'
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about 1 million to 1.5 million people, identify as Wicca or Pagan
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- ^ Arena - Atlas of Religions and Nationalities in Russia. Sreda.org; 29% "adhere to a traditional religion of their ancestors, worship gods and the forces of nature". (исповедую традиционную религию своих предковпоклоняюсь богам и силам природы). This figure compares to 1.2% adherents of ethnic religions in all of the Russian Federation.
- ^ Nikolaus von Twickel. Europe's Last Pagans Worship in Mari-El Grove Archived 17 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Saint Petersburg Times, 2009.
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{{cite book}}
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The aim is to get Pagans of all persuasions (Wiccan, Druid, Asatru, Hellenic, Egyptian, Heathen etc.) to put themselves on the census form as 'Pagan' or 'Pagan, *your path*'.... Paganism is included in the Australian Standard Classification of Religious Groups (ASCRG), as a separate output category.... The classification structure of this group is: 613 Nature Religions 6130 Nature Religions, nfd (not further defined) 6131 Animism 6132 Druidism 6133 Paganism 6134 Pantheism 6135 Wiccan/Witchcraft 6139 Nature Religions, nec (not elsewhere classified) If a response of Pagan is qualified with additional information such as Druid or Wiccan, this additional information will be used in classifying the response. For example, Pagan Wiccan would be classified as 6135 and Pagan Celtic would be 6133. Pagan alone would be classified as 6133.
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Academic journal articles
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- Hakl, Hans Thomas (2010). "Franz Sättler (Dr. Musallam) and the Twentieth-Century Cult of Adonism". The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies. 12 (1).
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Technical reports and statistics
- Results of the 2011 Census. PAGANdash.com (Technical report). Australia: Pagan Awareness Network Inc. Australia. 2012. Archived from the original on 15 March 2013. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
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Contemporary Pagan literature
- ISBN 978-0-8065-2710-9.
- ISBN 978-0-676-97467-6.
External links
- The Pagan Federation (paganfed.org)