Vateria indica
Vateria indica | |
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Vateria indica tree, in the Anamalai Hills
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Vateria indica illustration | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Malvales |
Family: | Dipterocarpaceae |
Genus: | Vateria |
Species: | V. indica
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Binomial name | |
Vateria indica | |
Synonyms | |
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Vateria indica, the white dammar,
Description
Shape, trunk, and bark
Evergreen trees with cylindrical, straight boles, growing up to 40 m tall, occasionally up to 60 m.[4] In evergreen forests, the trees can grow to large girth, with an individual reaching up to 5.26 m in girth recorded in Kodagu.[5] The bark is smooth, grey with green and white blotches on the trunk[6] and a cream colored blaze.[4] On scarring, it exudes a white, aromatic resin. The tree has dense foliage in a oval or dome-like canopy. The young branchlets are nearly cylindrical and have stellate (star-shaped) hairs.
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Tree trunk and bark
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Bark
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Blotches on bark
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Bark with lichens
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Bark cut, oozing resin
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Roots
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Branchlets
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Young sapling
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Mature tree in tea estate
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Mature tree showing dome-like canopy
Leaves
The leaves, which are simple, alternate, and arranged in a spiral around the twigs, are leathery, about 8-27 x 4.5–10 cm in size,
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Young leaf flushing red
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Leaf flush
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Maturing leaf
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Mature leaf
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Single leaf, close-up
Flower, fruit and seed
The
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Inflorescence
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Inflorescence
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Flower
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Fruit
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Germinating seed
Taxonomy
Vateria malabarica Blume is a Synonym of Vateria indica L. The genus Vateria has three species with accepted names,[11] of which Vateria indica and Vateria macrocarpa occur in India and Vateria copallifera occurs in Sri Lanka. Vateria indica has smaller leaves (7-20 x 5–9 cm), shorter petiole (25–40 mm), and oblong fruit compared to Vateria macrocarpa that has larger leaves (14-40 x 6–20 cm), longer petiole (25–60 mm), and ovoid or oblong fruit with pointed, often curved tip.[7]
Studies indicate the species has a mitotic chromosome number of 2n=22.[12] Polymorphic microsatellite markers have been identified for Vateria indica and the species has an expected heterozygosity of 0.44 to 0.84.[13]
Common names
The species has a number of common names in local languages.[4][14]
Tamil: Dhupa maram தூப மரம், Painimaram பைனிமரம், Vellaikundrikam வெள்ளைகுன்றிகம், Vellaidamar வெள்ளை டமார், Vellai kungiliyam வெள்ளை குங்கிலியம், turulakkam துருளக்கம், vellai kunkiliyam வெள்ளைக்குங்கிலியம்
Malayalam: കുന്തിരിക്കപ്പൈന് Kuntirikkappayin, പയിനി Paini, വെള്ളപ്പൈന് Vellappayin, Baine, Kunturukkam, Paenoe, Paine, Paini, Payan, Payani, Payin, Pandam, Pantam, Peini, Perumpayani, Perumpiney, Pine, Piny, Pyney, Telli, Thelli, Vella kunturukkum, Vellapayin, Vellakondricum, Velutta kunturukkam, ബൈനെ, കുന്തുരുക്കും, പൈനോയ്, പൈനെ, പൈനി, പയന്, പയിനി, പയിന്, പഞ്ഞം, പീനി, പെരുംപയിണി, പൈനെയ്, തെള്ളി, വെളള കുന്തിരി
Kannada: ಬಿಳಿ ಡಾವರು Bili Daamaru, ಬಿಳಿ ಧೂಪ Bili Dhupa, ಧೂಪದ ಮರ Dhupada Mara, Bilagaggala, Dhupa mara, Gugli, Hugadamara, Rala, Velthapaini
Telugu: తెల్లగుగ్గిలము tellaguggilamu
Marathi: चंद्रुस chandrusa
Odia: ମନ୍ଦଧୂପ mandadhupa, ସନ୍ଦରସ sandarasa
Sanskrit: सर्जकः sarjakah
English: Indian copal tree, Piney varnish tree, White dammar
Distribution and habitat
The species is
Outside forests, the tree is found as avenue trees along roadsides in some areas. In Karnataka, the species does not occur in
Climatic factors
Within its distributional range, Vateria indica occurs in areas with a mean annual rainfall of 2000 to 3000 mm and a mean annual temperature slightly over 27 °C (range 16.7 °C to 37.8 °C). The number of rainy days varies from 118 to 130 with a mean annual humidity of 77-79% within the zone of distribution.[5]
Geology, soil, and topography
Vateria indica occurs in areas where the underlying rock is a gneissic complex, often laminated, which may be covered by laterite 9–10 m deep. The laterite may be in stages of disintegration from hard rock to fine gravel. Typically the trees occur in forests with a thick layer of humus on the surface. The trees are also found in lowland and plateau locations, but mostly occur along well-drained river banks and valleys in humid, moist forest tracts.[5] Valleys with deep sandy soil and high water table support Vateria indica dominated forests at lower elevations.[15] The trees also occur in Myristica swamp forests in Kerala[16] and Karnataka.[17]
Ecology
Flowering and pollination
Vateria indica is bee-pollinated.[8] Vateria indica trees in Sringeri in the central Western Ghats flower profusely from late January to early May. The trees flower in alternate years with a mast event occurring every fourth year.[10] The flowers, which open during the day and last only one day, attract generalist nectarivores and pollinators. They are regularly visited by social bees such as Asian honey bee and giant honey bee, and more occasionally by other bees such as Lasioglossum, Ceratina, Tetragonula iridipennis, Xylocopa latipes, Xylocopa rufescens, and Xylocopa verticalis.[10]
Fruiting and germination
The trees mainly fruit during the
Plant associations
Low-elevation wet forests of the Western Ghats tend to be dominated by dipterocarps, particularly Vateria indica and Dipterocarpus indicus. In the Uppangala forest (300 – 600 m elevation) in Karnataka, Vateria indica is the dominant tree accounting for about 17% of the trees and 29% of the basal area, followed by other species such as Myristica dactyloides, Humboldtia brunonis, and Dipterocarpus indicus.[18]
In Myristica swamp forests in Kerala, they occur with other trees such as Myristica fatua var. magnifica and Syzygium travancoricum, understorey vegetation including Ochlandra bamboos, Pandanus screw pines, and species of aroids, Acanthaceae, and gingers.[16] In Myristica swamps of Karnataka, Vateria indica occurs in forests dominated by trees such as Gymnacranthera farquhariana, Myristica fatua var. magnifica, Mastixia arborea, the dipterocarp Hopea ponga, and the palm Pinanga dicksonii.[17]
Fungal associations
In the Western Ghats, Vateria indica trees are associated with a number of
Uses
Vateria indica wood has been used for making tea-chests, partitions, packing and cordite cases, coffins, boxes, planking, posts, floorings, ceilings, and cabinets, besides bobbins and shuttles in the textile industry, oars for sea-going vessels, and match-splints[3][9] Large amounts of Vateria indica timber were shipped from the Malabar region to Bombay to be sold as “Malabar White Pine” (Vellapiney),[9] with around 6200 tons of timber used per annum in the late 1960's.[21] The wood, after preservative treatment, was also used for railway sleepers.[9]
Resin of Vateria indica, extracted by scratching the tree's bark, is called white dammar, also known as “Malabar fallow”, “dhupa fat”, “Indian Copal”, or “piney resin”.[22] It is used as incense in India, for incense sticks,[23] and to manufacture candles and soaps.[3] From dried kernels, a fat called “piney tallow” was extracted, which was used to adulterate ghee, making candles and soaps, to treat chronic rheumatism, and for sizing cotton yarn in place of animal tallow.[9] The resin mixed with coconut oil makes an excellent varnish resembling copal.[9] The bark, resin, and leaves are used in Ayurvedic, Siddha, Unani, and folk medicine[3][24][21] for the treatment of leprosy, eczema, rheumatism, diarrhoea, and ulcers.[24] Fine shavings of resin are administered internally to check diarrhoea.[9] Vateria indica oil, produced from the seeds, is refined to yield a fat used in confectionery and cosmetics.
Experimental assays
The bark extract may have potential for treatment of degenerative brain conditions. One study found that young amnesic mice subjected to pre-treatment with ethanol extract of Vateria indica bark gained neuro-protection and enhanced memory.[25] Several stilbenoids (bergenin, hopeaphenol, vaticanol B, vaticanol C, and ε‐viniferin) found in resins (ethanol extract from stem bark of Vateria indica) have been shown to have some in vitro anticancer activity against mouse sarcoma 180 cells by retarding tumor growth when administered in high doses (30 or 100 mg/kg body mass).[26] Experiments on rats also indicate significant reduction of obesity after administration of aqueous extract of stem bark.[27]
Chemical constituents
Stem bark
From the stem bark of Vateria indica, two novel stilbenoids, vateriaphenols A and B, have been isolated along with ten known stilbenoids and bergenin.[28] The stem bark also contains high phenol and flavonoid content. In one study, the stem bark yielded 670 mg/g and 310 mg/g total phenolic content in ethanolic and aqueous extracts, respectively, while the corresponding total flavonoid content was 74 mg/g and 62 mg/g.[29]
Leaves
The leaves have yielded two new
Seeds
Vateria indica seeds have nearly 19% oil / fat content, with poly-saturated
Conservation
The species was previously listed as Critically Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species because of over-exploitation for timber for the plywood industry, habitat loss, and other human activities.[36] A 2020 assessment has placed the species in the Vulnerable category.[37] According to the recent assessment, besides the timber exploitation and extensive habitat loss due to human activities in lowland areas, the species has very restricted seed dispersal, limiting regeneration. Market-driven and intensive harvest of the nuts in recent years is expected to further affect the remaining populations.[10] In Sringeri forests, where subsistence harvest of seeds (for edible oil) has given way to commercial exploitation and trade (for raw materials for oil and paint industry), the abundance of seeds on the forest floor was 96% lower after harvest than before harvest. The quantity of nuts traded in this locality increased from 5 tons in 1999-2000 (at ₹ 0.25/kg) to 820 tons in 2009-2010 (₹ 2.25/kg) and 650 tons in 2011-12 (₹ 2.60/kg), raising concerns on sustainability of harvest and impacts on regeneration of Vateria indica.[10]
References
- . Retrieved 17 November 2021.
- ^ USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Vateria indica". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
- ^ S2CID 241984296. Retrieved 2020-11-18.
- ^ a b c d e "Vateria indica - DIPTEROCARPACEAE". www.biotik.org. Retrieved 2020-11-18.
- ^ a b c d e f Troup, R.S. (1921). The Silviculture of Indian Trees - Volume I: Dilleniaceae to Leguminosae (Papilionaceae). Vol. 1. London: Oxford University Press.
- ^ ISBN 9788190142014.
- ^ a b Sasidharan, N. (2004). Biodiversity Documentation for Kerala Part 6: Flowering Plants. Peechi.: Kerala Forest Research Institute.
- ^ ISSN 0066-4162.
- ^ a b c d e f g Joshi, H.B., ed. (1980). Troup's The Silviculture of Indian Trees - Volume II: Dipertocarpaceae (Revised and Enlarged ed.). Delhi: The Controller of Publications. pp. 416–423.
- ^ S2CID 29812036.
- ^ "Vateria L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 2020-11-18.
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- ISSN 1877-7252.
- ^ "Vateria indica L. - Names of Plants in India". sites.google.com. Retrieved 2020-11-18.
- ISSN 2321-094X.
- ^ ISSN 2321-094X.
- ^ a b Bhat, P.R.; Kaveriappa, K.M. (2009). "Ecological studies on Myristica swamp forests of Uttara Kannada, Karnataka, India" (PDF). Tropical Ecology. 50: 329–337.
- S2CID 84551369.
- S2CID 218588805.
- ISSN 0974-7907.
- ^ a b Venkatesh, K.R.H.; Sushrutha, C.K. (2010). "Flora of concern endangered medicinal plants - Part I Vateria indica Linn, Dipterocarpaceae - a review". International Journal of Research in Ayurveda and Pharmacy. 1: 1–7.
- ^ Dymock, William; Hooper, David; Warden, C. J. H. (1890). Pharmacographia indica ?A history of the principal drugs of vegetable origin, met with in British India /By William Dymock ... C. J. H. Warden ... and David Hooper. Missouri Botanical Garden. London : K. Paul, Trench, Tru?bner & co., ld; [etc. etc.]
- ^ Niveditha, T.P.; Indupriya, J.; Vinohar, V.; sathish, B.N.; Prakash, N.A. (2012). "Value addition of Dhup (Vateria indica and Canarium strictum): a case study of making Agarbatti". MFP News. 22 (1): 4–6.
- ^ a b Jeyakumar, S.; Ayyappan, N.; Muthuramkumar, S.; Kaniappan, R. (2014). "S, Jeyakumar & Narayanan, Ayyappan & Sankaralingam, Muthuramkumar & Rajarathinam, Kaniappan. Diversity and distribution of ethno-medicinal tree species from central Western Ghats". Journal of Basic and Applied Biology. 8: 72–79.
- S2CID 226082679.
- PMID 14696625.
- ISSN 0974-3618.
- .
- ^ "Determination of Phenol and flavonoid content from Vateria indica (Linn)". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2021-01-28.
- .
- PMID 20930407.
- S2CID 83652931.
- S2CID 134423703.
- S2CID 108152532.
- ISSN 1521-379X.
- ^ Ashton, P. (1998-01-01). "IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Vateria indica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 2021-01-25.
- S2CID 241984296. Retrieved 2021-01-25.