Kannada
Kannada | |
---|---|
ಕನ್ನಡ | |
Kannadigas | |
Native speakers | L1: 44 million (2011)[1] L2: 15 million (2011)[1] |
| |
Early form | |
Official status | |
Official language in | |
Regulated by | Government of Karnataka[5] |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-1 | kn |
ISO 639-2 | kan |
ISO 639-3 | kan |
Glottolog | nucl1305 |
Linguasphere | 49-EBA-a |
Distribution of Kannada native speakers, majority regions in dark blue and minority regions in light blue.[6] | |
Part of Culture of Karnataka |
Person | Kannaḍiga |
---|---|
People | Kannaḍigaru |
Language | Kannaḍa |
Kannada (/ˈkɑːnədə, ˈkæn-/;[7][8] ಕನ್ನಡ, IPA: [ˈkɐnːɐɖa]), previously also known as Canarese,[9] is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 44 million native speakers, and is additionally a second or third language for around 15 million non-native speakers in Karnataka.
Kannada was the court language of a number of dynasties and empires of South, Central India and Deccan Plateau, namely the Kadamba dynasty, Western Ganga dynasty, Chalukya dynasty, Rashtrakuta Empire, Western Chalukya Empire Yadava Dynasty or Seunas, Kingdom of Mysore, Nayakas of Keladi,[10] Hoysala dynasty and the Vijayanagara Empire. The official and administrative language of the state of Karnataka,[11] it also has scheduled status in India and has been included among the country's designated classical languages.[12][13]
The Kannada language is written using the Kannada script, which evolved from the 5th-century Kadamba script. Kannada is attested epigraphically for about one and a half millennia and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 6th-century Ganga dynasty[14] and during the 9th-century Rashtrakuta Empire.[15][16] Kannada has an unbroken literary history of over a thousand years.[17] Kannada literature has been presented with 8 Jnanapith awards, the most for any Dravidian language and the second highest for any Indian language.[18][19][20] In July 2011, a center for the study of classical Kannada was established as part of the Central Institute of Indian Languages in Mysore to facilitate research related to the language.[21]
Geographic distribution
Kannada had 43.5 million native speakers in India at the time of the 2011 census. It is the main language of the state of Karnataka, where it is spoken natively by 40.6 million people, or about two thirds of the state's population. There are native Kannada speakers in the neighbouring states of Tamil Nadu (1,140,000 speakers), Maharashtra (993,000), Andhra Pradesh/Telangana (533,000), Kerala (78,100) and Goa (67,800).[22] It is also spoken as a second and third language by over 12.9 million non-native speakers in Karnataka.[23]
Kannadigas form Tamil Nadu's third biggest linguistic group; their population is roughly 1.23 million, which is 2.2% of Tamil Nadu's total population.[24][25]
The Malayalam spoken by people of Lakshadweep has many Kannada words.[26]
In the United States, there were 35,900 speakers in 2006–2008,
Development
Kannada is a Southern Dravidian language and according to Sanford B. Steever, its history can be conventionally divided into three stages: Old Kannada (Haḷegannaḍa) from 450 to 1200 AD, Middle Kannada (Naḍugannaḍa) from 1200 to 1700 and Modern Kannada (Hosagannaḍa) from 1700 to the present.[29] Kannada was influenced to a considerable degree by Sanskrit and Prakrit. The scholar Iravatham Mahadevan indicated that Kannada was already a language of rich spoken tradition earlier than the 3rd century BC and based on the native Kannada words found in Prakrit inscriptions of that period, Kannada must have been spoken by a broad and stable population.[30][31][32] The scholar K. V. Narayana claims that many tribal languages which are now designated as Kannada dialects could be nearer to the earlier form of the language, with lesser influence from other languages.[30]
Sanskrit and Prakrit influence
The sources of influence on literary Kannada grammar appear to be three-fold: Pāṇini's grammar, non-Pāṇinian schools of Sanskrit grammar, particularly Katantra and Sakatayana schools, and Prakrit grammar.[33] Literary Prakrit seems to have prevailed in Karnataka since ancient times. The vernacular Prakrit speaking people may have come into contact with Kannada speakers, thus influencing their language, even before Kannada was used for administrative or liturgical purposes. Kannada phonetics, morphology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax show significant influence from these languages.[33][34]
Some naturalised (tadbhava) words of Prakrit origin in Kannada are: baṇṇa (colour) derived from vaṇṇa, huṇṇime (full moon) from puṇṇivā. Examples of naturalised Sanskrit words in Kannada are: varṇa (colour), pūrṇime, and rāya from rāja (king).[35]
Kannada also has borrowed (Tatsama) words such as dina (day), kōpa (anger), sūrya (sun), mukha (face), nimiṣa (minute).[36]
History
Early traces
The earliest Kannada inscriptions are from the middle of the 5th century AD, but there are a number of earlier texts that may have been influenced by the ancestor language of Old Kannada.[37]
Iravatam Mahadevan, a Brahmin, author of a work on early Tamil epigraphy, argued that oral traditions in Kannada and Telugu existed much before written documents were produced. Although the rock inscriptions of Ashoka were written in Prakrit, the spoken language in those regions was Kannada as the case may be. He can be quoted as follows:[38]
If proof were needed to show that Kannada was the spoken language of the region during the early period, one needs only to study the large number of Kannada personal names and place names in the early Prakrit inscriptions on stone and copper in Upper South India [...] Kannada was spoken by relatively large and well-settled populations, living in well-organised states ruled by able dynasties like the Satavahanas, with a high degree of civilisation [...] There is, therefore, no reason to believe that these languages had less rich or less expressive oral traditions than Tamil had towards the end of its pre-literate period.
The
In some 3rd–1st century BC Tamil inscriptions, words of Kannada influence such as Naliyura, kavuDi and posil were found. In a 3rd-century AD Tamil inscription there is usage of oppanappa vIran. Here the honorific appa to a person's name is an influence from Kannada. Another word of Kannada origin is taayviru and is found in a 4th-century AD Tamil inscription. S. Settar studied the sittanavAsal inscription of first century AD as also the inscriptions at tirupparamkunram, adakala and neDanUpatti. The later inscriptions were studied in detail by Iravatham Mahadevan also. Mahadevan argues that the words erumi, kavuDi, poshil and tAyiyar have their origin in Kannada because Tamil cognates are not available. Settar adds the words nADu and iLayar to this list. Mahadevan feels that some grammatical categories found in these inscriptions are also unique to Kannada rather than Tamil. Both these scholars attribute these influences to the movements and spread of Jainas in these regions. These inscriptions belong to the period between the first century BC and fourth century AD. These are some examples that are proof of the early usage of a few Kannada origin words in early Tamil inscriptions before the common era and in the early centuries of the common era.[42]
The Greek geographer Ptolemy (150 AD) mentions places such as Badiamaioi (Badami), Inde (Indi), Kalligeris (Kalkeri), Modogoulla (Mudagal), Petrigala (Pattadakal), Hippokoura (Huvina Hipparagi), Nagarouris (Nagur), Tabaso (Tavasi), Tiripangalida (Gadahinglai), Soubouttou or Sabatha (Savadi), Banaouase (Banavasi), Thogorum (Tagara), Biathana (Paithan), Sirimalaga (Malkhed), Aloe (Ellapur) and Pasage (Palasige).[46] He mentions a Satavahana king Sire Polemaios, who is identified with Sri Pulumayi (or Pulumavi), whose name is derived from the Kannada word for Puli, meaning tiger. Some scholars indicate that the name Pulumayi is actually Kannada's 'Puli Maiyi' or 'One with the body of a tiger' indicating native Kannada origin for the Satavahanas.[47] Pai identifies all the 10 cities mentioned by Ptolemy (100–170 AD) as lying between the river Benda (or Binda) or Bhima river in the north and Banaouasei (Banavasi) in the south, viz. Nagarouris (Nagur), Tabaso (Tavasi), Inde (Indi), Tiripangalida (Gadhinglaj), Hippokoura (Huvina Hipparagi), Soubouttou (Savadi), Sirimalaga (Malkhed), Kalligeris (Kalkeri), Modogoulla (Mudgal) and Petirgala (Pattadakal), as being located in Northern Karnataka which signify the existence of Kannada place names (and the language and culture) in the southern Kuntala region during the reign of Vasishtiputra Pulumayi (c. 85-125 AD, i.e., late 1st century – early 2nd century AD) who was ruling from Paithan in the north and his son, prince Vilivaya-kura or Pulumayi Kumara was ruling from Huvina Hipparagi in present Karnataka in the south.[48]
An early ancestor of Kannada (or a related language) may have been spoken by Indian traders in Roman-era Egypt and it may account for the Indian-language passages in the ancient Greek play known as the Charition mime.[49]
Epigraphy
The earliest examples of a full-length Kannada language stone inscription (śilāśāsana) containing
Followed by
The noted archaeologist and art historian S. Shettar is of the opinion that an inscription of the
Current estimates of the total number of existing
Kannada inscriptions are discovered in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat in addition to Karnataka. This indicates the spread of the influence of the language over the ages, especially during the rule of large Kannada empires.[71][72][73][74]
The earliest copper plates inscribed in Old Kannada script and language, dated to the early 8th century AD, are associated with
Coins
Some early
Literature
Old Kannada
The oldest known existing record of Kannada poetry in Tripadi metre is the
Some of the early writers of prose and verse mentioned in the Kavirajamarga, numbering 8–10, stating these are but a few of many, but whose works are lost, are Vimala or Vimalachandra (c. 777), Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabandhu, Durvinita (6th century), and poets including Kaviswara, Srivijaya, Pandita, Chandra, Ravi Kirti (c. 634) and Lokapala.
Kannada works from earlier centuries mentioned in the
Around the beginning of the 9th century, Old Kannada was spoken from
The late classical period gave birth to several genres of Kannada literature, with new forms of composition coming into use, including Ragale (a form of blank verse) and meters like Sangatya and Shatpadi. The works of this period are based on Jain and Hindu principles. Two of the early writers of this period are Harihara and Raghavanka, trailblazers in their own right. Harihara established the Ragale form of composition while Raghavanka popularised the Shatpadi (six-lined stanza) meter.[112] A famous Jaina writer of the same period is Janna, who expressed Jain religious teachings through his works.[113]
The
Emperor Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I of 850 AD recognised that the Sanskrit style of Kannada literature was Margi (formal or written form of language) and Desi (folk or spoken form of language) style was popular and made his people aware of the strength and beauty of their native language Kannada. In 1112 AD, Jain poet Nayasena of Mulugunda, Dharwad district, in his Champu work Dharmamrita (ಧರ್ಮಾಮೃತ), a book on morals, warns writers from mixing Kannada with Sanskrit by comparing it with mixing of clarified butter and oil. He has written it using very limited Sanskrit words which fit with idiomatic Kannada. In 1235 AD, Jain poet Andayya, wrote Kabbigara Kava- ಕಬ್ಬಿಗರ ಕಾವ (Poet's Defender), also called Sobagina Suggi (Harvest of Beauty) or Madana-Vijaya and Kavana-Gella (Cupid's Conquest), a Champu work in pure Kannada using only indigenous (desya) Kannada words and the derived form of Sanskrit words – tadbhavas, without the admixture of Sanskrit words. He succeeded in his challenge and proved wrong those who had advocated that it was impossible to write a work in Kannada without using Sanskrit words. Andayya may be considered as a protector of Kannada poets who were ridiculed by Sanskrit advocates. Thus Kannada is the only Dravidian language which is not only capable of using only native Kannada words and grammar in its literature (like Tamil), but also use Sanskrit grammar and vocabulary (like Telugu, Malayalam, Tulu, etc.) The Champu style of literature of mixing poetry with prose owes its origins to the Kannada language which was later incorporated by poets into Sanskrit and other Indian languages.[106][115][116][117][118][119]
Middle Kannada
During the period between the 15th and 18th centuries, Hinduism had a great influence on Middle Kannada (Naḍugannaḍa- ನಡುಗನ್ನಡ) language and literature. Kumara Vyasa, who wrote the Karṇāṭa Bhārata Kathāman̄jari (ಕರ್ಣಾಟ ಭಾರತ ಕಥಾಮಂಜರಿ), was arguably the most influential Kannada writer of this period. His work, entirely composed in the native Bhamini Shatpadi (hexa-meter), is a sublime adaptation of the first ten books of the Mahabharata.[120] During this period, the Sanskritic influence is present in most abstract, religious, scientific and rhetorical terms.[121][122][123] During this period, several Hindi and Marathi words came into Kannada, chiefly relating to feudalism and militia.[124]
Hindu saints of the
Modern Kannada
The Kannada works produced from the 19th century make a gradual transition and are classified as Hosagannaḍa or Modern Kannada. Most notable among the modernists was the poet
Modern Kannada in the 20th century has been influenced by many movements, notably Navodaya, Navya, Navyottara, Dalita and Bandaya. Contemporary Kannada literature has been highly successful in reaching people of all classes in society. Further, Kannada has produced a number of prolific and renowned poets and writers such as
Dialects
There is also a considerable difference between the spoken and written forms of the language. Spoken Kannada tends to vary from region to region. The written form is more or less consistent throughout Karnataka. The
Ethnologue also classifies a group of four languages related to Kannada, which are, besides Kannada proper,
Writing system
The language uses forty-nine
Dictionary
Kannada–Kannada dictionary has existed in Kannada along with ancient works of Kannada grammar. The oldest available Kannada dictionary was composed by the poet 'Ranna' called 'Ranna Kanda' (ರನ್ನ ಕಂದ) in 996 AD. Other dictionaries are 'Abhidhana Vastukosha' (ಅಭಿದಾನ ವಾಸ್ತುಕೋಶ) by Nagavarma (1045 AD), 'Amarakoshada Teeku' (ಅಮರಕೋಶದ ತೀಕು) by Vittala (1300), 'Abhinavaabhidaana' (ಅಭಿನವಾಭಿದಾನ) by Abhinava Mangaraja (1398 AD) and many more.[146] A Kannada–English dictionary consisting of more than 70,000 words was composed by Ferdinand Kittel.[147]
G. Venkatasubbaiah edited the first modern Kannada–Kannada dictionary, a 9,000-page, 8-volume series published by the Kannada Sahitya Parishat. He also wrote a Kannada–English dictionary and a kliṣtapadakōśa (ಕ್ಲಿಷ್ಟಪಾದಕೋಶ), a dictionary of difficult words.[148][149]
Phonology
Consonants
Labial | Dental/ Alveolar |
Retroflex
|
Post-alv./ Palatal |
Velar | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m (ಮ) | n (ನ)
|
ɳ (ಣ) | (ɲ) (ಞ) | (ŋ) (ಙ) | ||
Plosive/ Affricate |
voiceless | p (ಪ) | t̪ (ತ)
|
ʈ (ಟ) | tʃ (ಚ) | k (ಕ) | |
aspirated | pʰ (ಫ) | t̪ʰ (ಥ) | ʈʰ (ಠ) | tʃʰ (ಛ) | kʰ (ಖ) | ||
voiced | b (ಬ) | d̪ (ದ)
|
ɖ (ಡ) | dʒ (ಜ) | ɡ (ಗ) | ||
breathy | bʱ (ಭ) | d̪ʱ (ಧ) | ɖʱ (ಢ) | dʒʱ (ಝ) | ɡʱ (ಘ) | ||
Fricative | s (ಸ) | ʂ (ಷ) | ʃ (ಶ) | h (ಹ) | |||
Approximant | ʋ (ವ) | l (ಲ)
|
ɭ (ಳ) | j (ಯ) | |||
Rhotic | r (ರ)
|
- Most consonants can be geminated.
- Aspirated consonants very rarely occur in native vocabulary only in a few numerals like the number 9 and 80, which can be written with a /bʱ/, as in "ಒಂಭತ್ತು", ಎಂಭತ್ತು. However, it is usually written with a /b/, as in "ಒಂಬತ್ತು", ಎಂಬತ್ತು.
- The aspiration of consonants depends entirely on the speaker and many do not do it in non-formal situations.
- The alveolar trill /r/ may be pronounced as an alveolar tap [ɾ].
- The voiceless retroflex sibilant /ʂ/ is commonly pronounced as a /ʃ/ except in consonant clusters with retroflex consonants.
- There are also the consonants /f, z/ which occur in recent English and Perso-Arabic loans but they may be replaced by the consonants /pʰ, dʒ/ respectively by speakers.[150]
Additionally, Kannada included the following phonemes, which dropped out of common usage in the 12th and 18th century respectively:
- /r/ ಱ (ṟ), the alveolar trill.
- /ɻ/ ೞ (ḻ), the retroflex central approximant.
Old Kannada had an archaic phoneme /ɻ/ under retroflexes in early inscriptions which merged with /ɭ/ and it maintained the contrast between /r/ (< PD ∗ṯ) and /ɾ/ from (< PD ∗r). Both merged in Medieval Kannada.[150]
In old Kannada at around 10th-14th century, most of the initial /p/
Historically, the Tamil-Malayalam languages and, independently, Telegu, phonemically palatalized /k/ before a front vowel; Kannada never developed such phonemic palatalization (c.f. Kn. ಕಿವಿ /kiʋi/, Ta. செவி /seʋi/, Te. చెవి /tʃeʋi/ "ear");[152] however, phonetically, Kannada speakers frequently palatalize velar consonants before front vowels, for example, realizing ಕಿವಿ /kiʋi/ "ear" as [ciʋi] and ಗಿಳಿ /ɡiɭi/ "parrot" as [ɟiɭi].
Vowels
Front | Central | Back | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
short | long | short | long | short | long | |
Close | i (ಇ) | iː (ಈ) | u (ಉ) | uː (ಊ) | ||
Mid | e (ಎ) | eː (ಏ) | o (ಒ) | oː (ಓ) | ||
Open | a (ಅ) | aː (ಆ) |
- /ɐ/ and /aː/ are phonetically central [ɐ, äː]. /ɐ/ may be as open as /aː/ ([ä]) or higher [ɐ].
- The vowels /i iː e eː/ may be preceded by /j/ and the vowels /u uː o oː/ may be preceded by /ʋ/ when they are in an initial position.
- The short vowels /a i u e o/, when in an initial or a medial position tend to be pronounced as [ɐ ɪ ʊ ɛ ɔ]. In a final position, this phenomenon occurs less frequently.
- /æː/ occurs in English loans but can be switched with /aː/ or /ja:/.[150]
At around the 8th century, Kannada raised the vowels e, o to i, u when before a short consonant and a high vowel, before written literature emerged in the language, e.g. Kn. kivi, Ta. cevi, Te. cevi "ear".[153]
Grammar
The canonical word order of Kannada is
The most influential account of Kannada grammar is
Compound bases
Compound bases, called samāsa in Kannada, are a set of two or more words compounded together.[156] There are several types of compound bases, based on the rules followed for compounding. The types of compound bases or samāsas: tatpurusha, karmadhāraya, dvigu, bahuvreehi, anshi, dvandva, kriya and gamaka samāsa.[clarification needed] Examples: taṅgāḷi, hemmara, kannusanne.
Pronouns
In many ways the third-person pronouns are more like demonstratives than like the other pronouns. They are pluralised like nouns and the first- and second-person pronouns have different ways to distinguish number.[157]
Sample text
The given sample text is Article 1 from the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[158]
English
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Kannada
ಎಲ್ಲಾ ಮಾನವರು ಸ್ವತಂತ್ರರಾಗಿಯೇ ಹುಟ್ಟಿದ್ದಾರೆ ಹಾಗು ಘನತೆ ಮತ್ತು ಅಧಿಕಾರಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಸಮಾನರಾಗಿದ್ದಾರೆ. ತಿಳಿವು ಮತ್ತು ಅಂತಃಕರಣಗಳನ್ನು ಪಡೆದವರಾದ್ದರಿಂದ, ಅವರು ಒಬ್ಬರಿಗೊಬ್ಬರು ಸಹೋದರ ಭಾವದಿಂದ ನಡೆದುಕೊಳ್ಳಬೇಕು.
Romanisation (ISO 15919)
Ellā mānavaru svatantrarāgiyē huṭṭiddāre hāgu ghanate mattu adhikāragaḷalli samānarāgiddāre. Tiḷivu mattu antaḥkaraṇagaḷannu paḍedavarāddarinda avaru obbarigobbaru sahōdara bhāvadinda naḍedukoḷḷabēku.
IPA
/ellaː maːn̪ɐʋɐɾu sʋɐt̪ɐn̪t̪ɾɐɾaːɡijeː huʈʈid̪d̪aːɾe haːɡu gʱɐn̪ɐt̪e mɐt̪t̪u ɐd̪ʱikaːɾɐɡɐɭɐlli sɐmaːn̪ɐɾaːɡid̪d̪aːɾe ǁ t̪iɭiʋu mɐt̪t̪u ɐn̪t̪ɐkkɐɾɐɳɐɡɐɭɐn̪n̪u pɐɖed̪ɐʋɐraːd̪d̪ɐɾin̪d̪ɐ ɐʋɐɾu obbɐɾiɡobbɐɾu sɐhoːd̪ɐɾɐ bʱaːʋɐd̪in̪d̪ɐ n̪ɐɖed̪ukoɭɭɐbeːku ǁ/
See also
- Bangalore Kannada
- Gokak agitation
- Hermann Mögling
- Kannada cinema
- Kannada dialects
- Kannada flag
- Kannada in computing
- Kuvempu
- List of Kannada-language radio stations
- List of Karnataka literature
- List of languages by number of native speakers in India
- Siribhoovalaya
- Timeline of Karnataka
- Yakshagana
References
- ^ a b Kannada at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
- ISBN 978-81-202-0141-5.
the proto-Dravidian linguistic community disintegrated at the beginning of the 4th millennium B.C.
- ^ https://www.academia.edu/23734414[unreliable source?]
- .
- ^ The Karnataka official language act, 1963 – Karnataka Gazette (Extraordinary) Part IV-2A. Government of Karnataka. 1963. p. 33.
- ISBN 978-0195068696.
- ^ "Kannada". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.
- ^ "Kannada". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ Reeve, William (1858). Sanderson, Daniel (ed.). A Dictionary, Canarese and english. Bangalore: Wesleyan Mission Press. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
- ISBN 9780521299442.
- ^ "The Karnataka Official Language Act" (PDF). Official website of Department of Parliamentary Affairs and Legislation. Government of Karnataka. Retrieved 29 June 2007.
- ^ Kuiper (2011), p. 74
- ISBN 978-0-691-15491-6
- ^ "Gangas of Talakad". Official website of the Central Institute of Indian Languages, India. classicalkannada.org. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 12 May 2008.
- ^ "Rastrakutas". Official website of the Central Institute of Indian Languages. Archived from the original on 10 January 2011. Retrieved 12 May 2008.
- ^ Zvelebil (1973), p. 7 (Introductory, chart)
- ^ Garg (1992), p. 67
- ^ "Jnanpeeth Awardees from Karnataka | Jnanapeeta Awardees | Jnanpith Award". www.karnatakavision.com. Archived from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 5 July 2018.
- ^ "Jnanpith Award: Eight Kannada authors who have won 'Jnanpith Award'". 5 September 2017. Archived from the original on 22 December 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2018.
- ^ "Jnanpith Awards Winners Full List". 27 July 2016.
- ^ "IBNLive – CIIL to head Centre for classical Kannada study". ibnlive.in.com. 23 July 2011. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
- ^ Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. "C-16: Population by mother tongue, India – 2011". Retrieved 16 November 2022.
- ^ "Indiaspeak: English is our 2nd language". The Times of India. 14 March 2010.
- ^ Nagarajan, Rema (16 April 2008). "Kannadigas TN's 3rd biggest group". The Times of India.
- ISBN 9781135356255.
- ISBN 9788180691294.
- ^ "Table 1. Detailed Languages Spoken at Home". Archived from the original on 4 June 2011.
- ^ a b Kannada at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
- ^ Steever 1998, p. 129.
- ^ a b "Classical Kannada, Antiquity of Kannada". Centre for classical Kannada. Central Institute for Indian Languages. Archived from the original on 25 April 2010. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
- )
- ISBN 9788120601444.
- ^ a b Mythic Society (Bangalore, India) (1985). The quarterly journal of the Mythic society (Bangalore)., Volume 76. Mythic Society (Bangalore, India). pp. Pages_197–210.
- ^ B. K. Khadabadi; Prākr̥ta Bhāratī Akādamī (1997). Studies in Jainology, Prakrit literature, and languages: a collection of select 51 papers Volume 116 of Prakrit Bharti pushpa. Prakrit Bharati Academy. pp. 444 pages.
- ^ Jha, Ganganatha (1976). Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Volume 32. Ganganatha Jha Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha. pp. see page 319.
- ^ Kulli, Jayavant S (1991). History of grammatical theories in Kannada. Internationial School of Dravidian Linguistics. pp. 330 pages.
- ^ Bhat 1993, p. 102,103.
- ^ "Classical Kannada, Antiquity of Kannada". Centre for classical Kannada. Central Institute for Indian Languages. Archived from the original on 25 April 2010. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
- ^ The word Isila found in the Ashokan inscription (called the Brahmagiri edict from Karnataka) meaning to shoot an arrow, is a Kannada word, indicating that Kannada was a spoken language in the 3rd century BC (D.L. Narasimhachar in Kamath 2001, p5)
- ^ B., Dr. Suresha (October 2018). "A study on Ashoka's Inscriptions with special reference to Karnataka" (PDF). JETIR. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^ Angadi, Jagadish (30 October 2020). "Kannada in Alexandria". Deccan Herald.
- ISBN 9780674012271.
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- ^ "Muziris Heritage Project".
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- ^ Mysore State, 1956–1966. Director of Publicity & Information, Government of Mysore. 1966. p. 15.
- JSTOR 44002572.
- JSTOR 603404.
- ^ K. V. Ramesh (1984), p. 10, 55
- ^ a b Encyclopaedia of Indian literature vol. 2, Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1717, 1474
- ^ A report on Halmidi inscription, Muralidhara Khajane (3 November 2003). "Halmidi village finally on the road to recognition". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 24 November 2003. Retrieved 25 November 2006.
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 10
- ^ "When ancient copper plates came to Kannada's rescue". Deccan Herald. 30 October 2021. Retrieved 15 April 2022.
- ^ Rice, Lewis Benjamin (1912). Epigraphia Carnatica Inscription In Kolar District Vol.10. pp. 111–114.
- ISBN 978-0-656-23957-3.
- ^ Rice, Benjamin Lewis (1886). Epigraphia Carnatica: [pt. 2]. Inscriptions in the Kolar district [Kannada text. Mysore Government Central Press.
- ^ Vagarnal, Avinasha (28 December 2021). "Ancient copper plates of Kannada older than Halmidi inscription are in Kolar – ಕೋಲಾರದಲ್ಲಿದೆ ಹಲ್ಮಿಡಿ ಶಾಸನಕ್ಕಿಂತಲೂ ಪ್ರಾಚೀನವಾದ ಕನ್ನಡ ಭಾಷೆಯ ತಾಮ್ರದ ಪತ್ರ!". Vijay Karnataka (in Kannada). Retrieved 15 April 2022.
- ^ Rice, Benjamin Lewis (1905). Epigraphia Carnatica: Inscriptions in the Kolar District. Mysore Government Central Press. pp. 111–113.
- ^ "Kannada inscription at Talagunda of 370 CE may replace Halmidi inscription as the oldest". Deccan Herald.
- ^ R. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 6
- ^ Rice E. P. (1921), p. 13
- Govinda Paiin Bhat (1993), p. 102
- ^ "Mysore scholar deciphers Chandragiri inscription". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 20 September 2008. Archived from the original on 22 September 2008. Retrieved 20 September 2008.
- ^ "HALMIDI INSCRIPTION". Centre for classical Kannada. Central Institute for Indian Languages. Archived from the original on 6 May 2013. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
- ^ "HISTORIAN'S STUDY PUSHES EARLIEST RECORD OF KANNADA WRITING BACK BY A CENTURY". The antiquity of Kannada. 10 March 2013.
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- ISBN 978-0-231-14028-7
- ^ Kamath (2001), p58
- ^ Azmathulla Shariff (14 February 2018). "Badami: Chalukyans' magical transformation". Deccan Herald. Archived from the original on 7 October 2006. Retrieved 25 November 2006.
- ^ Kamath (2001), p83
- ^ Sircar 1965. pp. 202–4.
- ^ Luce 1985. pp. 62, n.16.
- ^ Guy, John (1996). "A WARRIOR-RULER STELE FROM SRI KSETRA, PYU, BURMA" (PDF). Journal of The Siam Society – Siamese Heritage. Journal of The Siam Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^ Gururaj Bhat in Kamath (2001), p97
- ^ a b Mukerjee, Shruba (21 August 2005). "Preserving voices from the past". Sunday Herald. Archived from the original on 22 October 2006. Retrieved 11 April 2007.
- ^ The coins are preserved at the Archaeological Section, Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Mumbai – Kundangar and Moraes in Moraes (1931), p382
- ^ The coin is preserved at the Indian Historical Research Institute, St. Xavier's College, Mumbai – Kundangar and Moraes in Moraes (1938), p 382
- ^ Dr Gopal, director, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History (6 February 2006). "5th century copper coin discovered at Banavasi". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 26 May 2007.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Kamath (2001), p12, p57
- ^ Govindaraya Prabhu, S. "Indian coins-Dynasties of South". Prabhu's Web Page on Indian Coinage, 1 November 2001. Archived from the original on 1 September 2006. Retrieved 27 November 2006.
- ^ Harihariah Oruganti-Vice-President; Madras Coin Society. "Vijayanagar Coins-Catalogue". Archived from the original on 25 October 2005. Retrieved 27 November 2006.
- ^ This shows that the native vernacular of the Goa Kadambas was Kannada – Moraes (1931), p384
- ^ Two coins of the Hangal Kadambas are preserved at the Royal Asiatic Society, Mumbai, one with the Kannada inscription Saarvadhari and other with Nakara. Moraes (1931), p385
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 67
- ^ a b c d Sastri (1955), p355
- ^ Kamath (2001), p90
- ^ Jyotsna Kamat. "History of the Kannada Literature-I". Kamat's Potpourri, 4 November 2006. Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 25 November 2006.
- ^ Sastri (1955), p356
- ^ JSTOR 25208973.
- ^ Rao in Datta (1994), pp. 2278–2283
- ^ a b c d e f g R. Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 2, 4–5, 12–18, 29
- ^ a b Warder (1988), pp. 240–241
- ^ a b c d 6th century Sanskrit poet Dandin praised Srivaradhadeva's writing as "having produced Saraswati from the tip of his tongue, just as Shiva produced the Ganges from the tip of his top knot" (Rice E.P., 1921, pp.25–28)
- ^ Garg (1987), vol. 4
- ^ Nagaraj in Sheldon (2003), p. 333
- ^ Hukkerikar, Ramarao. S. (1955). Karnataka Darshana. R. S. Hukkerikar; sole distributor: Popular Book Depot. pp. 85, 87, 178, 205.
- ^ a b Rice, Edward Peter (1915). A History of Kanarese Literature. Oxford University Press. pp. 22–26.
- ^ The seventeenth-century Kannada grammarian Bhattakalanka wrote about the Chudamani as a milestone in the literature of the Kannada language (Sastri (1955), p355)
- ^ Jyotsna Kamat. "History of the Kannada Literature – I". Kamat's Potpourri, 4 November 2006. Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 25 November 2006.
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp 4–5
- ^ a b Rice, B.L. (1897), pp. 496–497
- ^ a b c Chidananda Murthy in Kamath (1980), p. 50, 67
- ^ Mugali (1975), p. 13
- ^ a b Kamath (2001), p50, p67
- ^ ISBN 9788126018031.
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 248
- ^ The author and his work were praised by the latter-day poet Durgasimha of AD 1025 (R. Narasimhacharya 1988, p18.)
- ^ Benjamin Lewis Rice (1985), p xv
- ^ K. Appadurai. "The place of Kannada and Tamil in India's national culture". INTAMM. Archived from the original on 15 April 2007. Retrieved 25 November 2006.
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- ^ Sastri (1955), pp 361–2
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p20
- ^ Sastri (1955), p361
- ^ Nagendra, Dr. (1988). "Indian Literature". Prabhat Prakashan, 1988.
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andayya pure kannada.
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- ^ Rice, Edward. P (1921), "A History of Kannada Literature", Oxford University Press, 1921: 14–15
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- ^ Sastri (1955), p364
- ^ "Literature in all Dravidian languages owes a great deal to Sanskrit, the magic wand whose touch raised each of the languages from a level of patois to that of a literary idiom". (Sastri 1955, p309)
- ^ Takahashi, Takanobu. 1995. Tamil love poetry and poetics. Brill's Indological library, v. 9. Leiden: E.J. Brill, p16,18
- ^ "The author endeavours to demonstrate that the entire Sangam poetic corpus follows the "Kavya" form of Sanskrit poetry"-Tieken, Herman Joseph Hugo. 2001. Kāvya in South India: old Tamil Caṅkam poetry. Groningen: Egbert Forsten
- ^ J. Bucher; Ferdinand Kittel (1899). A Kannaḍa-English school-dictionary: chiefly based on the labours of the Rev. Dr. F. Kittel. Basel Mission Book & Tract Depository.
- ^ Sastri (1955), pp 364–365
- ^ The writing exalts the grain Ragi above all other grains that form the staple foods of much of modern Karnataka (Sastri 1955, p365)
- ISBN 978-81-7017-382-3.
- ^ Iyer (2006), p93
- ^ Sastri (1955), p365
- ^ Report on the administration of Mysore – Page 90 Mysore – 1864 "There is no authentic record of the casting of the first Early Canarese printing. Canarese type, but a Canarese Grammar by Carey printed at Serampore in 1817 is extant. About the same time a translation of the Scriptures was printed
- ^ Missions in south India – Page 56 Joseph Mullens – 1854 "Among those of the former are tracts on Caste, on the Hindu gods; Canarese Proverbs; Henry and his Bearer; the Pilgrim's Progress; Barth's Bible Stories; a Canarese hymn book"
- ^ Special Correspondent (20 September 2011). "Jnanpith for Kambar". The Hindu.
- ^ "Welcome to: Bhartiya Jnanpith". jnanpith.net. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 7 November 2008.
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- ^ Naik, Vinayak K.; Naik, Yogesh (6 April 2007). "HISTORY OF KOMARPANTHS". hindu-kshatriya-komarpanth. Atom.
- ^ "GOA ON THE THRESHOLD OF THE 20TH CENTURY" (PDF). ShodhGanga. 1995. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^ Kamat, K. L. "Halakki Farmers of Uttara Kannada". Kamat's Potpourri.
- ^ Uday, Savita (18 August 2010). "Tribes of Uttara Kannada-The Halakki Tribe". Buda Folklore.
- ^ K., Bhumika (29 October 2014). "Beauty in all its glory". The Hindu.
- ^ "Kannada". The Record News. DSAL, Chicago.
- ^ Sherring, Matthew A. (1879). Hindu Tribes and Castes: As Represented in Benares ; with Illustrations. Thacker. pp. 113–114.
- ^ Grierson, George A. (1906). "Linguistic Survey of India". dsal.uchicago.edu. Government of India. pp. 362–406. Retrieved 14 May 2022.
- ^ S., Kiran Kumar (17 July 2015). "The Kannada History of Maharashtra".
- ^ "Region between Godavari, Cauvery was once Karnataka". Deccan Herald. 5 November 2014.
- ^ "The People – Population". Nasik District Gazetteers. Government of Maharashtra.
- (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
- ^ Manjulakshi & Bhat. "Kannada Dialect Dictionaries and Dictionaries in Subregional Languages of Karnataka". Language in India, Volume 5: 9 September 2005. Central Institute of Indian Languages, University of Mysore. Retrieved 11 April 2007.
- ^ Muralidhara Khajane (22 August 2012). "Today's Paper / NATIONAL: 100 years on, words never fail him". The Hindu.
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- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-77111-5.
- ^ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 120.
- ^ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 128.
- ^ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 106.
- ^ Studies in Indian History, Epigraphy, and Culture – By Govind Swamirao Gai, pp. 315
- ^ a b A Grammar of the Kannada Language. F. Kittel (1993), p. 3.
- ^ Ferdinand Kittel, pp. 30
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- ^ "Universal Declaration of Human Rights". www.un.org. 6 October 2015. Retrieved 29 March 2020.
Bibliography
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- Kittel, F (1993). A Grammar of the Kannada Language Comprising the Three Dialects of the Language (Ancient, Medieval and Modern). New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0056-0.
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- Ramesh, K.V. (1984). Chalukyas of Vatapi. New Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
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- Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-560686-7.
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - Steever, S. B. (1998). "Kannada". In Steever, S. B. (ed.). The Dravidian Languages. Routledge Language Family Descriptions. London: Routledge. pp. 129–157. ISBN 978-0-415-10023-6.
- Various (1988). Encyclopaedia of Indian literature-vol 2. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0.
- Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India. Leiden, Netherlands: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-03591-1.
Further reading
- Masica, Colin P. (1991) [1991]. The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
- Thapar, Romila (2003) [2003]. The Penguin History of Early India. New Delhi: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-302989-2.
- ISBN 81-206-0595-0
- Varadpande, Manohar Laxman (1987) [1987]. History of Indian Theatre. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-221-5.
- Robert Zydenbos (2020): A Manual of Modern Kannada. Heidelberg: XAsia Books (Open Access publication in PDF format)
External links
- "Indian inscriptions-South Indian inscriptions, Vol 20, 18, 17, 15, 11 and 9, Archaeological survey of India, What Is India Publishers (P) Ltd".
- English to Kannada Dictionary, Kannada to English Dictionary PDF