Parrot
Parrots | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Clade: | Psittacopasseres |
Order: | Psittaciformes Wagler, 1830 |
Superfamilies | |
| |
Range of parrots, all species (red) |
Parrots (Psittaciformes), also known as psittacines (
Parrots—along with ravens, crows, jays, and magpies—are among the most intelligent birds, and the ability of some species to imitate human speech enhances their popularity as pets. They form the most variably sized bird order in terms of length; many are vividly coloured and some, multi-coloured. Most parrots exhibit little or no sexual dimorphism in the visual spectrum.
The most important components of most parrots' diets are seeds, nuts, fruit, buds, and other plant material. A few species sometimes eat animals and
Parrots are the only creatures that display true
Taxonomy
Origins and evolution
Psittaciform diversity in South America and Australasia suggests that the order may have evolved in Gondwana, centred in Australasia.[8] The scarcity of parrots in the fossil record, however, presents difficulties in confirming the hypothesis. There is currently a higher number of fossil remains from the northern hemisphere in the early Cenozoic.[9] Molecular studies suggest that parrots evolved approximately 59 million years ago (Mya) (range 66–51 Mya) in Gondwana. The Neotropical Parrots are monophyletic, and the three major clades originated about 50 Mya (range 57–41 Mya).[10]
A single 15 mm (0.6 in) fragment from a large lower
It is generally assumed that the Psittaciformes were present during the
The first uncontroversial parrot fossils date to tropical
Several fairly complete skeletons of parrot-like birds have been found in England and Germany.[17] These are probably not transitional fossils between ancestral and modern parrots, but rather lineages that evolved parallel to true parrots and cockatoos:[18]
- Psittacopes
- Serudaptus
- Halcyornithidae
- Vastanavidae
- Quercypsittidae
- Messelasturidae[19]
The earliest records of modern parrots date to around 23–20 mya.[20] The fossil record—mainly from Europe—consists of bones clearly recognisable as belonging to anatomically modern parrots.[21] The Southern Hemisphere contains no known parrot-like remains earlier than the Early Miocene around 20 mya.[20]
Etymology
The name 'Psittaciformes' comes from the ancient Greek for parrot, ψιττακός ('Psittacus'), whose origin is unclear. Ctesias (5th century BCE) recorded the name Psittacus after the Indian name for a bird, most likely a parakeet (now placed in the genus Psittacula). Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE) in his Natural History (book 10, chapter 58) noted that the Indians called the bird as "siptaces"; however, no matching Indian name has been traced.[22][23] Popinjay is an older term for parrots, first used in English in the 1500s.[24]
Phylogeny
Molecular
Australaves |
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Most taxonomists now divide Psittaciformes into four families:
The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships between the four families. The species numbers are taken from the list maintained by
Psittaciformes |
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The Psittaciformes comprise three main lineages:
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Phylogenetic relations between parrots[8] |
Systematics
The order Psittaciformes consists of four families containing roughly 410 species belonging to 101 genera.[27][28]
Superfamily Strigopoidea: New Zealand parrots
- Family Strigopidae
- Subamily New Zealand kākā) and several extinct species of the New Zealand region
- Subfamily Strigopinae: the flightless, critically endangered kākāpōof New Zealand
- Subamily
Superfamily Cacatuoidea: cockatoos
- Family Cacatuidae
- Subfamily Nymphicinae: one genus with one species, the cockatiel.
- Subfamily Calyptorhynchinae: the black cockatoos
- Subfamily Cacatuinae
- Tribe Microglossini: one genus with one species, the black palm cockatoo
- Tribe Cacatuini: four genera of white, pink, and grey species
Superfamily Psittacoidea: true parrots
- Family Psittacidae
- Subfamily Psittacinae: two African genera, Psittacus and Poicephalus
- Subfamily Arinae
- Tribe Arini: 18 genera
- Tribe Androglossini: seven genera.
- Subfamily
- Family Psittaculidae
- Subfamily Coracopsis
- Subfamily Platycercinae
- Tribe Pezoporini: ground parrots and allies
- Tribe Platycercini: broad-tailed parrots
- Subfamily Psittacellinae: one genus (Psittacella) with several species
- Subfamily Loriinae
- Tribe Loriini: lories and lorikeets
- Tribe Melopsittacini: one genus with one species, the budgerigar
- Tribe Cyclopsittini: fig parrots
- Tribe
- Subfamily Agapornithinae: three genera
- Subfamily Psittaculinae
- Tribe Polytelini: three genera
- Tribe Psittaculini: Asian psittacines
- Tribe Micropsittini: pygmy parrots
- Subfamily
Morphology
Living species range in size from the buff-faced pygmy parrot, at under 10 g (0.4 oz) in weight and 8 cm (3.1 in) in length,[36]: 149 to the hyacinth macaw, at 1 m (3.3 ft) in length,[37] and the kākāpō, at 4.0 kg (8.8 lb) in weight.[38] Among the superfamilies, the three extant Strigopoidea species are all large parrots, and the cockatoos tend to be large birds, as well. The Psittacoidea parrots are far more variable, ranging the full spectrum of sizes shown by the family.[38]
The most obvious physical characteristic is the strong, curved, broad bill. The upper mandible is prominent, curves downward, and comes to a point. It is not fused to the skull, which allows it to move independently, and contributes to the tremendous biting pressure the birds are able to exert. A large macaw, for example, has a bite force of 35 kg/cm2 (500 lb/sq in), close to that of a large dog.
Parrots have strong
Cockatoo species have a mobile
Distribution and habitat
Parrots are found on all tropical and subtropical continents and regions including
Several parrots inhabit the cool,
Few parrots are wholly sedentary or fully migratory. Most fall somewhere between the two extremes, making poorly understood regional movements, with some adopting an entirely nomadic lifestyle.[64] Only three species are migratory – the orange-bellied, blue-winged and swift parrots.[65]
Behaviour
Numerous challenges are found in studying wild parrots, as they are difficult to catch and once caught, they are difficult to mark. Most wild bird studies rely on banding or wing tagging, but parrots chew off such attachments.[64] Parrots also tend to range widely, and consequently many gaps occur in knowledge of their behaviour. Some parrots have a strong, direct flight. Most species spend much of their time perched or climbing in tree canopies. They often use their bills for climbing by gripping or hooking on branches and other supports. Researchers at the New York Institute of Technology published findings that showed parrots used their beaks as a “third limb” to propel themselves.[66] On the ground, parrots often walk with a rolling gait.[40]
Diet
The diet of parrots consists of
Geographical range and body size predominantly explains the diet composition of Neotropical parrots rather than phylogeny.[68]
Lories, lorikeets, hanging parrots, and swift parrots are primarily nectar and pollen consumers, and have tongues with brush tips to collect it, as well as some specialised gut adaptations. Many other species also consume nectar when it becomes available.[69][70]
Some parrot species prey on animals, especially invertebrate larvae.
Some extinct parrots had carnivorous diets.
Breeding
With few exceptions, parrots are
Only the monk parakeet and five species of lovebirds build nests in trees,[77] and three Australian and New Zealand ground parrots nest on the ground. All other parrots and cockatoos nest in cavities, either tree hollows or cavities dug into cliffs, banks, or the ground. The use of holes in cliffs is more common in the Americas. Many species use termite nests, possibly to reduce the conspicuousness of the nesting site or to create a favourable microclimate.[78] In most cases, both parents participate in nest excavation. The length of the burrow varies with species, but is usually between 0.5 and 2 m (1.6 and 6.6 ft) in length. The nests of cockatoos are often lined with sticks, wood chips, and other plant material. In the larger species of parrots and cockatoos, the availability of nesting hollows may be limited, leading to intense competition for them both within the species and between species, as well as with other bird families. The intensity of this competition can limit breeding success in some cases.[79][80] Hollows created artificially by arborists have proven successful in boosting breeding rates in these areas.[81] Some species are colonial, with the burrowing parrot nesting in colonies up to 70,000 strong.[82] Coloniality is not as common in parrots as might be expected, possibly because most species adopt old cavities rather than excavate their own.[83]
The eggs of parrots are white. In most species, the female undertakes all the
As typical of
Intelligence and learning
Some
Learning in early life is apparently important to all parrots, and much of that learning is social learning. Social interactions are often practised with siblings, and in several species, crèches are formed with several broods. Foraging behaviour is generally learnt from parents, and can be a very protracted affair. Generalists and specialists generally become independent of their parents much quicker than partly specialised species who may have to learn skills over long periods as various resources become seasonally available. Play forms a large part of learning in parrots; play can be solitary or social. Species may engage in play fights or wild flights to practice predator evasion. An absence of stimuli can delay the development of young birds, as demonstrated by a group of vasa parrots kept in tiny cages with domesticated chickens from the age of three months; at nine months, these birds still behaved in the same way as 3-month-olds, but had adopted some chicken behaviour.[64] In a similar fashion, captive birds in zoo collections or pets can, if deprived of stimuli, develop stereotyped and harmful behaviours like self-plucking. Aviculturists working with parrots have identified the need for environmental enrichment to keep parrots stimulated.[89]
Sound imitation and speech
Many parrots can imitate human
Parrots do not have vocal cords, so sound is accomplished by expelling air across the mouth of the trachea in the organ called the syrinx. Different sounds are produced by changing the depth and shape of the trachea.[92] Grey parrots are known for their superior ability to imitate sounds and human speech, which has made them popular pets since ancient times.[93]
Although most parrot species are able to imitate, some of the amazon parrots are generally regarded as the next-best imitators and speakers of the parrot world. The question of why birds imitate remains open, but those that do often score very high on tests designed to measure problem-solving ability. Wild grey parrots have been observed imitating other birds.[94]
Song
Parrots are unusual among birds due to their learned vocalizations, a trait they share with only hummingbirds and songbirds.[95] The syrinx (vocal organ) of parrots, which aids in their ability to produce song, is located at the base of the trachea and consists of two complex syringeal muscles that allow for the production of sound vibrations, and a pair of lateral tympaniform membranes that control sound frequency.[96] The position of the syrinx in birds allows for directed air flow into the interclavicular air sacs according to air sac pressure, which in turn creates a higher and louder tone in birds' singing.[95]
Cooperation
A 2011 study stated that some African grey parrots preferred to work alone, while others like to work together.[97] With two parrots, they know the order of tasks or when they should do something together at once, but they have trouble exchanging roles. With three parrots, one parrot usually prefers to cooperate with one of the other two, but all of them are cooperating to solve the task.[98]
Relationship with humans
Pets
Parrots may not make good pets for most people because of their natural wild instincts such as screaming and chewing. Although parrots can be very affectionate and cute when immature, they often become aggressive when mature (partly due to mishandling and poor training) and may bite, causing serious injury.[99] For this reason, parrot rescue groups estimate that most parrots are surrendered and rehomed through at least five homes before reaching their permanent destinations or before dying prematurely from unintentional or intentional neglect and abuse. The parrots' ability to mimic human words and their bright colours and beauty prompt impulse buying from unsuspecting consumers. The domesticated budgerigar, a small parrot, is the most popular of all pet bird species.[100] In 1992, the newspaper USA Today published that 11 million pet birds were in the United States alone,[101] many of them parrots. Europeans kept birds matching the description of the rose-ringed parakeet (or called the ring-necked parrot), documented particularly in a first-century account by Pliny the Elder.[102] As they have been prized for thousands of years for their beauty and ability to talk, they have also often been misunderstood. For example, author Wolfgang de Grahl says in his 1987 book The Grey Parrot that some importers had parrots drink only coffee while they were shipped by boat, believing that pure water was detrimental and that their actions would increase survival rates during shipping.[103] Nowadays, it is commonly accepted that the caffeine in coffee is toxic to birds.[104]
Pet parrots may be kept in a cage or
Parrots invariably require an enormous amount of attention, care, and intellectual stimulation to thrive, akin to that required by a three-year-old child, which many people find themselves unable to provide in the long term.[106] Parrots that are bred for pets may be hand-fed or otherwise accustomed to interacting with people from a young age to help ensure they become tame and trusting. However, even when hand fed, parrots revert to biting and aggression during hormonal surges and if mishandled or neglected.[107] Parrots are not low-maintenance pets; they require feeding, grooming, veterinary care, training, and environmental enrichment through the provision of toys, exercise, and social interaction (with other parrots or humans) for good health.[108]
Some large parrot species, including large cockatoos, amazons, and macaws, have very long lifespans, with 80 years being reported,[109] and record ages of over 100.[110] Small parrots, such as lovebirds, hanging parrots, and budgies, have shorter lifespans up to 15–20 years.[111] Some parrot species can be quite loud, and many of the larger parrots can be destructive and require a very large cage, and a regular supply of new toys, branches, or other items to chew up.[105] The intelligence of parrots means they are quick to learn tricks and other behaviours—both good and bad—that get them what they want, such as attention or treats.[108]
The popularity, longevity, and intelligence of many of the larger kinds of pet parrots and their wild traits such as screaming, has led to many birds needing to be rehomed during the course of their long lifespans. A common problem is that large parrots that are cuddly and gentle as juveniles mature into intelligent, complex, often demanding adults who can outlive their owners, and can also become aggressive or even dangerous. Due to an increasing number of homeless parrots, they are being euthanised like dogs and cats, and parrot adoption centres and sanctuaries are becoming more common.[85]: 77–78 Parrots do not often do well in captivity, causing some parrots to go insane and develop repetitive behaviours, such as swaying and screaming, or they become riddled with intense fear. Feather destruction and self-mutilation, although not commonly seen in the wild, occur often in captivity.[112][113]
Trade
The popularity of parrots as pets has led to a thriving—and often illegal—trade in the birds, and some species are now threatened with extinction. A combination of trapping of wild birds and damage to parrot habitats makes survival difficult or even impossible for some species of parrot. Importation of wild-caught parrots into the US and Europe is illegal after the Wild Bird Population Act was passed in 1992.[116]
The scale of the problem can be seen in the Tony Silva case of 1996, in which a parrot expert and former director at Tenerife's Loro Parque (Europe's largest parrot park) was jailed in the United States for 82 months and fined $100,000 for smuggling hyacinth macaws (such birds command a very high price.)[117]
Different nations have different methods of handling internal and international trade. Australia has banned the export of its native birds since 1960.
Mexico has a licensing system for capturing and selling native birds.[122] According to a 2007 report, 65,000 to 78,500 parrots are captured annually, but the mortality rate before reaching a buyer is over 75%, meaning around 50,000 to 60,000 will die.[123]
Culture
Parrots have featured in human writings, story, art, humor, religion, and music for thousands of years, such as
In ancient times and current, parrot
Parrots are used as symbols of nations and nationalism. A parrot is found on the
Sayings about parrots colour the modern English language. The verb "parrot" in the dictionary means "to repeat by rote". Also clichés such as the British expression "sick as a parrot" are given; although this refers to extreme disappointment rather than illness, it may originate from the disease of
Mythology
As early as the ancient Chinese
In Polynesian legend as current in the Marquesas Islands, the hero Laka/Aka is mentioned as having undertaken a long and dangerous voyage to Aotona in what are now the Cook Islands, to obtain the highly prized feathers of a red parrot as gifts for his son and daughter. On the voyage, 100 of his 140 rowers died of hunger on their way, but the survivors reached Aotona and captured enough parrots to fill 140 bags with their feathers.[142][143]
Parrots have also been considered sacred. The
In Hindu mythology, the parrot is the mount of the god of love, Kamadeva.[147] The bird is also associated with the goddess Meenakshi and the poet-saint Andal.[148]
Feral populations
Escaped parrots of several species have become established in the wild outside their natural ranges and in some cases outside the natural range of parrots. Among the earliest instances were pet
Feral parrot flocks can be formed after mass escapes of newly imported, wild-caught parrots from airports or quarantine facilities. Large groups of escapees have the protection of a flock and possess the skills to survive and breed in the wild.
Threats and conservation
The principal threats of parrots are habitat loss and degradation, hunting, and, for certain species, the wild-bird trade.[3] Parrots are persecuted because, in some areas, they are (or have been) hunted for food and feathers, and as agricultural pests. For a time, Argentina offered a bounty on monk parakeets for that reason, resulting in hundreds of thousands of birds being killed, though apparently this did not greatly affect the overall population.[154]
Parrots, being cavity nesters, are vulnerable to the loss of nesting sites and to competition with introduced species for those sites. The loss of old trees is a particular problem in some areas, particularly in Australia, where suitable nesting trees must be centuries old. Many parrots occur only on islands and are vulnerable to introduced species such as rats and feral cat, as they lack the appropriate antipredator behaviours needed to deal with predators.[155] Island species, such as the Puerto Rican amazon, which have small populations in restricted habitats, are also vulnerable to natural events, such as hurricanes.[156] Due to deforestation, the Puerto Rican amazon is one of the world's rarest birds despite conservation efforts.[157]
One of the largest parrot conservation groups is the World Parrot Trust,[158] an international organisation. The group gives assistance to worthwhile projects, as well as producing a magazine (PsittaScene)[159] and raising funds through donations and memberships, often from pet parrot owners. On a smaller scale, local parrot clubs raise money to donate to a conservation cause. Zoo and wildlife centres usually provide public education, to change habits that cause damage to wild populations. Conservation measures to conserve the habitats of some of the high-profile charismatic parrot species has also protected many of the less charismatic species living in the ecosystem.[160]: 12 A popular attraction that many zoos employ is a feeding station for lories and lorikeets, where visitors feed them with cups of liquid food. This is usually done in association with educational signs and lectures.[161] Birdwatching-based ecotourism can be beneficial to economies.[162]
Several projects aimed specifically at parrot conservation have met with success. Translocation of vulnerable kākāpō, followed by intensive management and supplementary feeding, has increased the population from 50 individuals to 123 in 2010[163] and 247 in 2024.[164] In New Caledonia, the Ouvea parakeet was threatened by trapping for the pet trade and loss of habitat. Community-based conservation, which eliminated the threat of poaching, has allowed the population to increase from around 600 birds in 1993 to over 2000 birds in 2009.[165]
As of 2009, the IUCN recognises 19 species of parrot as extinct since 1500 (the date used to denote modern extinctions).[166] This does not include species like the New Caledonian lorikeet, which has not been officially seen for 100 years, yet is still listed as critically endangered.[167]
Trade, export, and import of all wild-caught parrots is regulated and only permitted under special licensed circumstances in countries party to the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) which came into force in 1975 to regulate the international trade of all endangered, wild-caught animal and plant species. In 1975, 24 parrot species were included in Appendix I, thus prohibiting commercial international trade in these birds. Since that initial listing, continuing threats from international trade led it to add an additional 32 parrot varieties to Appendix I.[168] All other parrot species, aside from the rosy-faced lovebird, budgerigar, cockatiel and rose-ringed parakeet (which are not included in the appendices) are protected on Appendix II of CITES.[169][170] In addition, individual countries may have laws to regulate trade in certain species; for example, the EU has banned parrot trade,[120] whereas Mexico has a licensing system for capturing parrots.[122]
World Parrot Day
Every year on 31 May, World Parrot Day is celebrated.[171]
See also
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{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "Appendices I, II and III valid from 22 June 2021". CITES. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
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Cited sources
- Cameron, Matt (2007). Cockatoos. Collingwood, VIC, Australia: CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 978-0-643-09232-7.
External links
- Media related to Psittaciformes at Wikimedia Commons
- Parrot videos on the Internet Bird Collection