Leopard

Edit links
This is a good article. Click here for more information.
Page semi-protected
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

For other uses, see Leopard (disambiguation) and Leopards (disambiguation).

Leopard
Temporal range: Early Pleistocene – Present[2]
↓
African leopard male (cropped).jpg
Male
Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya
CITES Appendix I (CITES)[3]
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Feliformia
Family: Felidae
Subfamily: Pantherinae
Genus: Panthera
Species:
P. pardus[1]
Binomial name
Panthera pardus[1]
Subspecies

See text

Leopard distribution.jpg
Present and historical distribution of the leopard[3]

The leopard (Panthera pardus) is one of the five extant

genus Panthera. It has a pale yellowish to dark golden fur with dark spots grouped in rosettes
. Its body is slender and muscular reaching a length of 92–183 cm (36–72 in) with a 66–102 cm (26–40 in) long tail and a shoulder height of 60–70 cm (24–28 in). Males typically weigh 30.9–72 kg (68–159 lb), and females 20.5–43 kg (45–95 lb).

The leopard was first

radiated across Asia about 0.2 and 0.3 million years ago. Fossil leopard bones were excavated at 40 sites in Europe, where it had occurred at least since the Pleistocene
, but survived until about 24,000 years ago.

It is adapted to a variety of habitats ranging from

solitary animal outside the mating season and when raising cubs. Females usually give birth to a litter of 2–4 cubs once in 15–24 months. Both male and female leopards typically reach sexual maturity
at the age 2–2.5 years.

It is listed as

habitat loss and fragmentation, and are declining in large parts of the global range. Leopards have had cultural roles in Ancient Greece, West Africa
and modern Western culture. Leopard skins have been popular in fashion.

Etymology

The English name "leopard" comes from Old French leupart or Middle French liepart, that derives from Latin leopardus and ancient Greek λέοπάρδος (leopardos). Leopardos could be a compound of λέων (leōn), meaning 'lion', and πάρδος (pardos), meaning 'spotted'.[4][5][6] The word λέοπάρδος originally referred to a cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus).[7]

"Panther" is another common name, derived from Latin panther and ancient Greek πάνθηρ (pánthēr);

generic name Panthera originates in Latin panthera, a hunting net for catching wild beasts to be used by the Romans in combats.[8] Pardus is the masculine singular form.[9]

Characteristics

A melanistic leopard or black panther

The leopard's fur is generally soft and thick, notably softer on the belly than on the back.[10] Its skin colour varies between individuals from pale yellowish to dark golden with dark spots grouped in rosettes. Its underbelly is white and its ringed tail is shorter than its body. Its pupils are round.[11] Leopards living in arid regions are pale cream, yellowish to ochraceous and rufous in colour; those living in forests and mountains are much darker and deep golden. Spots fade toward the white underbelly and the insides and lower parts of the legs.[12] Rosettes are circular in East African leopard populations, and tend to be squarish in Southern African and larger in Asian leopard populations. The fur tends to be grayish in colder climates, and dark golden in rainforest habitats.[13] Rosette patterns are unique in each individual.[14][15] This pattern is thought to be an adaptation to dense vegetation with patchy shadows, where it serves as camouflage.[16]

Its white-tipped tail is about 60–100 cm (23.6–39.4 in) long, white underneath and with spots that form incomplete bands toward the end of the tail.[17] The guard hairs protecting the basal hairs are short, 3–4 mm (0.1–0.2 in) in face and head, and increase in length toward the flanks and the belly to about 25–30 mm (1.0–1.2 in). Juveniles have woolly fur that appear to be dark-coloured due to the densely arranged spots.[14][18] Its fur tends to grow longer in colder climates.[19] The leopard's rosettes differ from those of the

diploid chromosome number of 38.[20]

Melanistic leopards are also known as

recessive trait.[21][22][23][24]
In India, nine pale and white leopards were reported between 1905 and 1967.[25] Leopards exhibiting erythrism were recorded between 1990 and 2015 in South Africa's Madikwe Game Reserve and in Mpumalanga. The cause of this morph known as a "strawberry leopard" or "pink panther" is not well understood.[26]

Size

The leopard is a slender and muscular cat, with relatively short limbs and a broad head. It is

sexually dimorphic with males larger and heavier than females.[17] Males stand 60–70 cm (24–28 in) at the shoulder, while females are 57–64 cm (22–25 in) tall. The head-and-body length ranges between 92 and 183 cm (36 and 72 in) with a 66 to 102 cm (26 to 40 in) long tail. Sizes vary geographically. Males typically weigh 30.9–72 kg (68–159 lb), and females 20.5–43 kg (45–95 lb).[27] Occasionally, large males can grow up to 91 kg (201 lb). Leopards from the Cape Province in South Africa are generally smaller, reaching only 20–45 kg (44–99 lb) in males.[18][19][28]
The maximum recorded weight of a wild leopard in Southern Africa was around 96 kg (212 lb), and it measured 262 cm (103 in).[29] In 2016, an Indian leopard killed in Himachal Pradesh measured 261 cm (103 in) with an estimated weight of 78.5 kg (173 lb); it was perhaps the largest known wild leopard in India.[30][31]

The largest recorded skull of a leopard was found in India in 1920 and measured 28 cm (11 in) in

basal length, 20 cm (7.9 in) in breadth, and weighed 1 kg (2.2 lb). The skull of an African leopard measured 286 mm (11.3 in) in basal length, and 181 mm (7.1 in) in breadth, and weighed 790 g (28 oz).[32]

Taxonomy

Map showing approximate distribution of leopard subspecies

Felis pardus was the

scientific name proposed by Carl Linnaeus in 1758.[33]
The
generic name Panthera was first used by Lorenz Oken in 1816, who included all the known spotted cats into this group.[34]
Oken's classification was not widely accepted, and Felis or Leopardus was used as the generic name until the early 20th century.[35]

The leopard was designated as the type species of Panthera by Joel Asaph Allen in 1902.[36] In 1917, Reginald Innes Pocock also subordinated the tiger (P. tigris), lion (P. leo), and jaguar (P. onca) to Panthera.[37][38]

Living subspecies

Following Linnaeus' first description, 27 leopard

mitochondrial analysis.[39] Later analysis revealed a ninth valid subspecies, the Arabian leopard.[40]

In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group recognized the following eight subspecies as valid taxa:[41]

Subspecies Distribution Image
African leopard (P. p. pardus) (Linnaeus, 1758)[1] It is the most widespread leopard subspecies and is native to most of Sub-Saharan Africa.[3]
Leopard (Panthera pardus) male ... (51890626416).jpg
Indian leopard (P. p. fusca) (Meyer, 1794)[42] It occurs in the Indian subcontinent, Myanmar and southern Tibet.[3][41][43]
Indian male leopard (cropped).jpg
Javan leopard (P. p. melas) (Cuvier, 1809)[44] It is native to
Critically Endangered.[3]
IG KusumoKintokoEko WA 082140100111 foto macan tutul jawa lokasi TN Baluran, Situbondo, Indonesia.jpg
Arabian leopard (P. p. nimr) (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1830)[45] It is native to the Arabian Peninsula, but considered locally extinct in the Sinai Peninsula. It is the smallest leopard subspecies.[46]
PikiWiki Israel 14861 judean desert leopard cropped.JPG
Persian leopard (P. p. tulliana) (Valenciennes, 1856)[47] It is native to eastern
Endangered.[3]

The Balochistan leopard population in the south of Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan is separated from the northern population by the Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut deserts.[48]

Nordpersischen Leoparden.jpg
Amur leopard (P. p. orientalis) (Schlegel, 1857)[49][50] It is native to the
Korean peninsula.[3]
Amur leopard. Frame from a camera trap (cropped).jpg
Indochinese leopard (P. p. delacouri) Pocock, 1930[51] It occurs in mainland Southeast Asia and
southern China.[3]
Indochinese leopard.jpg
Sri Lankan leopard (P. p. kotiya) Deraniyagala, 1956[52] It is native to Sri Lanka.[3]
Srilankan leopard (srilankan kotiya) 02 (cropped).jpg

Results of an analysis of molecular variance and pairwise fixation index of 182 African leopard museum specimens showed that some African leopards exhibit higher genetic differences than Asian leopard subspecies.[53]

Evolution

Two cladograms proposed for Panthera. The upper cladogram is based on the 2006[54] and 2009[55] studies, while the lower is based on the 2010[56] and 2011[57]
studies.

Results of

sister taxon to a clade within Panthera, consisting of the lion and the jaguar.[54][55]

Results of a phylogenetic analysis of chemical secretions amongst cats indicated that the leopard is closely related to the lion.[58] The geographic origin of the Panthera is most likely northern Central Asia. The leopard-lion clade was distributed in the Asian and African

hybridized with the snow leopard at some point in their evolution.[60]

Fossils of leopard ancestors were excavated in

Toba eruption about 75,000 years ago,[61] and due to competition with the Sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi) and the dhole (Cuon alpinus).[62]

In Europe, the leopard occurred at least since the Pleistocene. Leopard-like fossil bones and teeth possibly dating to the

Santander Province in northern Spain to several sites across France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Germany, in the north up to Derby in England, in the east to Přerov in the Czech Republic and the Baranya in southern Hungary,[63] Leopard fossils dating to the Late Pleistocene were found in Biśnik Cave in south-central Poland.[64] The oldest known leopard fossils excavated in Europe are about 600,000 years old and were found in the Grotte du Vallonnet in France and near Mauer in Germany.[2] Four European Pleistocene leopard subspecies were proposed. P. p. begoueni from the beginning of the Early Pleistocene was replaced about 0.6 million years ago by P. p. sickenbergi, which in turn was replaced by P. p. antiqua around 0.3 million years ago. The most recent, P. p. spelaea, appeared at the beginning of the Late Pleistocene and survived until about 24,000 years ago in several parts of Europe.[65] Leopard fossils dating to the Pleistocene were also excavated in the Japanese archipelago.[66] Leopard fossils have also been found in Taiwan.[67]

Hybrids

Main articles: Panthera hybrid and Pumapard

In 1953, a male leopard and a female lion were

Nishinomiya, Japan. Their offspring known as a leopon was born in 1959 and 1961, all cubs were spotted and bigger than a juvenile leopard. Attempts to mate a leopon with a tigress were unsuccessful.[68]

Distribution and habitat

Leopard in a tree in India

The leopard has the largest distribution of all wild cats, occurring widely in Africa, the Caucasus and Asia, although populations are fragmented and declining. It is considered to be extirpated in North Africa.[3] It inhabits foremost savanna and rainforest, and areas where grasslands, woodlands, and riverine forests remain largely undisturbed.[13] In sub-Saharan Africa, it is still numerous and surviving in marginal habitats where other large cats have disappeared. There is considerable potential for human-leopard conflict due to leopards preying on livestock.[69]

Leopard populations in the Arabian Peninsula are small and fragmented.[70][71][72] In southeastern Egypt, a leopard killed in 2017 was the first sighting of the species in this area in 65 years.[73] In western and central Asia, it avoids deserts, areas with long snow cover and close proximity to urban centres.[74]

In the

Gangetic plains, Central India and Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, the Brahmaputra River basin and hills in Northeast India.[75] Some leopard populations in the country live quite close to human settlements and even in semi-developed areas. Although adaptable to human disturbances, leopards require healthy prey populations and appropriate vegetative cover for hunting for prolonged survival and thus rarely linger in heavily developed areas. Due to the leopard's stealth, people often remain unaware that it lives in nearby areas.[76]

In Nepal's

pine and eucalyptus plantations.[78][79]
In Myanmar, leopards were recorded for the first time by camera traps in the hill forests of Myanmar's
Taman Negara and Endau-Rompin National Parks.[81]
In Laos, leopards were recorded in Nam Et-Phou Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Area and Nam Kan National Protected Area.[82][83] In Cambodia, leopards inhabit deciduous
Mondulkiri Protected Forest.[84][85]
In southern China, leopards were recorded only in the Qinling Mountains during surveys in 11 nature reserves between 2002 and 2009.[86]

In Java, leopards inhabit dense

agricultural land, secondary forest and production forest between 2008 and 2014.[87]

In the Russian Far East, it inhabits temperate coniferous forests where winter temperatures reach a low of −25 °C (−13 °F).[40]

Behaviour and ecology

Leopard visual communication
A female leopard showing white spots on the tail

The leopard is a solitary and

roaring sequence in leopards consists mainly of grunts,[88] also called "sawing", as it resembles the sound of sawing wood. Cubs call their mother with an urr-urr sound.[18]

The whitish spots on the back of its ears are thought to play a role in communication.[89] It has been hypothesized that the white tips of their tails may function as a 'follow-me' signal in

intraspecific communication. However, no significant association were found between a conspicuous colour of tail patches and behavioural variables in carnivores.[90][91]

A leopard climbing down a tree

Leopards are mainly active from dusk till dawn and will rest for most of the day and some hours at night in thickets, among rocks or over tree branches. Leopards have been observed walking 1–25 km (0.62–15.53 mi) across their range at night; wandering up to 75 km (47 mi) if disturbed.[18][28] In some regions, they are nocturnal.[92][93] In western African forests, they have been observed to be largely diurnal and hunting during twilight, when their prey animals are active; activity patterns vary between seasons.[94]

Video of a leopard in the wild

Leopards can climb trees quite skillfully, often resting on tree branches and descending headfirst.[13] They can run at over 58 km/h (36 mph; 16 m/s), leap over 6 m (20 ft) horizontally, and jump up to 3 m (9.8 ft) vertically.[88]

Social spacing

In Kruger National Park, most leopards tend to keep 1 km (0.62 mi) apart.[95] Males occasionally interact with their partners and cubs, and exceptionally this can extend beyond to two generations.[96][97] Aggressive encounters are rare, typically limited to defending territories from intruders.[19] In a South African reserve, a male was wounded in a male–male territorial battle over a carcass.[92]

Males occupy home ranges that often overlap with a few smaller female home ranges, probably as a strategy to enhance access to females. In the Ivory Coast, the home range of a female was completely enclosed within a male's.[98] Females live with their cubs in home ranges that overlap extensively, probably due to the association between mothers and their offspring. There may be a few other fluctuating home ranges belonging to young individuals. It is not clear if male home ranges overlap as much as those of females do. Individuals try to drive away intruders of the same sex.[18][28]

A study of leopards in the Namibian farmlands showed that the size of home ranges was not significantly affected by sex, rainfall patterns or season; the higher the prey availability in an area, the greater the leopard population density and the smaller the size of home ranges, but they tend to expand if there is human interference.[99] Sizes of home ranges vary geographically and depending on habitat and availability of prey. In the

Bardia National Park, male home ranges of 48 km2 (19 sq mi) and female ones of 5–7 km2 (1.9–2.7 sq mi) are smaller than those generally observed in Africa.[103]

Hunting and diet

Stages of the hunt
bushbuck
Dragging an impala
kill
Caching the kill up a tree

The leopard is a

bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) and chital (Axis axis). Primates preyed upon include white-eyelid mangabeys (Cercocebus sp.), guenons (Cercopithecus sp.) and gray langurs (Semnopithecus sp.). Leopards also kill smaller carnivores like black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas), bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis), genet (Genetta sp.) and cheetah.[104]

The largest prey killed by a leopard was reportedly a male eland weighing 900 kg (2,000 lb).[88] A study in Wolong National Nature Reserve in southern China demonstrated variation in the leopard's diet over time; over the course of seven years, the vegetative cover receded, and leopards opportunistically shifted from primarily consuming tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus) to pursuing bamboo rats (Rhizomys sinense) and other smaller prey.[105]

The leopard depends mainly on its acute senses of hearing and vision for hunting.[106] It primarily hunts at night in most areas.[18] In western African forests and Tsavo National Park, they have also been observed hunting by day.[107] They usually hunt on the ground. In the Serengeti, they have been seen to ambush prey by descending on it from trees.[108]

It stalks its prey and tries to approach as closely as possible, typically within 5 m (16 ft) of the target, and, finally, pounces on it and kills it by suffocation. It kills small prey with a bite to the back of the neck, but holds larger animals by the throat and strangles them.[18] It caches kills up to 2 km (1.2 mi) apart.[96] It is able to take large prey due to its powerful jaw muscles, and is therefore strong enough to drag carcasses heavier than itself up into trees; an individual was seen to haul a young giraffe weighing nearly 125 kg (276 lb) up 5.7 m (18 ft 8 in) into a tree.[107] It eats small prey immediately, but drags larger carcasses over several hundred meters and caches it safely in trees, bushes or even caves; this behaviour allows the leopard to store its prey away from rivals, and offers it an advantage over them. The way it stores the kill depends on local topography and individual preferences, varying from trees in Kruger National Park to bushes in the plain terrain of the Kalahari.[19][109]

Average daily consumption rates of 3.5 kg (7 lb 11 oz) were estimated for males and of 2.8 kg (6 lb 3 oz) for females.

gemsbok cucumbers (Acanthosicyos naudinianus), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) and Kalahari sour grass (Schmidtia kalahariensis).[110]

Enemies and competitors

A lioness steals a leopard kill in Kruger National Park

In parts of its range, the leopard is

sympatric with other large predators such as the tiger (Panthera tigris), lion (P. leo), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea), African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), dhole (Cuon alpinus), wolf (Canis lupus) and up to five bear species. Some of these species steal its kills, kill its cubs and even kill adult leopards. Leopards retreat up a tree in the face of direct aggression, and were observed when killing or preying on smaller competitors such as black-backed jackal, African civet (Civettictis civetta), caracal (Caracal caracal) and African wildcat (Felis lybica).[13][111] Leopards generally seem to avoid encounters with adult bears, killing vulnerable bear cubs instead. In Sri Lanka, a few recorded fights between leopards and sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) apparently result in both animals winding up either dead or grievously injured.[112][113] Leopards generally avoid large packs of African wild dogs and dholes and will flee up a tree at the sight of them.[114][115]

While interspecies killing of full-grown leopards is generally rare, given the opportunity, both the tiger and lion readily kill and consume both young and adult leopards.[108][111][116][117] In the Kalahari Desert, leopards frequently lose kills to brown hyenas, if they are unable to move the kill up a tree. Single brown hyenas have been observed charging at and displacing male leopards from kills.[118][119] Lions occasionally fetch leopard kills from trees.[109]

Resource partitioning occurs where leopards share their range with tigers. Leopards tend to kill smaller prey, usually less than 75 kg (165 lb), where tigers are present.[13]
In areas where leopards and tigers are sympatric, coexistence is reportedly not the general rule, with leopards being few where tigers are numerous.[116] Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of the forest while leopards are pushed closer to the fringes.[120] In tropical forests, leopards do not always avoid the larger cats by hunting at different times. With relatively abundant prey and differences in the size of the selected prey, tigers and leopards seem to successfully coexist without competitive exclusion or interspecies dominance hierarchies that may be more prevalent in the leopard's co-existence with the lion in savanna habitats.[121]

Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) occasionally prey on leopards. In one occasion, a large adult leopard was grabbed and consumed by a large crocodile while attempting to hunt along a river bank in Kruger National Park.[95][96] Mugger crocodiles (C. palustris) reportedly killed an adult leopard in Rajasthan.[122] An adult leopard was recovered from the stomach of a 5.5 m (18 ft 1 in) Burmese python (Python bivittatus).[123] In the Serengeti National Park, troops of around 30–40 olive baboons (Papio anubis) were observed mobbing and attacking a female leopard and her cubs.[124]

Reproduction and life cycle

Leopard cubs in tree

In some areas, leopards mate all year round. In Manchuria and Siberia, they mate during January and February. On average, females begin to breed between the ages of 2½ and three, and males between the ages of two and three.[125] The female's estrous cycle lasts about 46 days, and she is usually in heat for 6–7 days.[126] The generation length of the leopard is 9.3 years.[127] Gestation lasts for 90 to 105 days.[128] Cubs are usually born in a litter of 2–4 cubs.[129] The mortality rate of cubs is estimated at 41–50% during the first year.[95] Lions and spotted hyenas are the biggest cause for leopard cub mortality during their first year. Male leopards are known to cause infanticide, in order to bring the female back into heat.[130] Intervals between births average 15 to 24 months, but can be shorter, depending on the survival of the cubs.[125]

Females give birth in a cave, crevice among boulders, hollow tree or thicket. Newborn cubs weigh 280–1,000 g (9.9–35.3 oz), and are born with closed eyes, which open four to nine days after birth.[88][19] The fur of the young tends to be longer and thicker than that of adults. Their pelage is also more gray in colour with less defined spots. They begin to eat meat at around nine weeks.[130] Around three months of age, the young begin to follow the mother on hunts. At one year of age, cubs can probably fend for themselves, but will remain with the mother for 18–24 months.[131] After separating from their mother, sibling cubs may travel together for months.[125] Both male and female leopards typically reach sexual maturity at 2–2⅓ years.[130]

The average life span of a leopard is 12–17 years.[88] The oldest leopard was a captive female that died at the age of 24 years, 2 months and 13 days.[132]

Conservation

The leopard is listed on

CITES Appendix I, and trade is restricted to skins and body parts of 2,560 individuals in 11 sub-Saharan countries.[3] The leopard is primarily threatened by habitat fragmentation and conversion of forest to agriculturally used land, which lead to a declining natural prey base, human–wildlife conflict with livestock herders and high leopard mortality rates. It is also threatened by trophy hunting and poaching.[3] Contemporary records suggest that the leopard occurs in only 25% of its historical range.[133][134]

Between 2002 and 2012, at least four leopards were estimated to have been poached per week in India for the

illegal wildlife trade of its skins and bones.[135]
In spring 2013, 37 leopard skins were found during a 7-week long market survey in major Moroccan cities.[136] In 2014, 43 leopard skins were detected during two surveys in Morocco. Vendors admitted to have imported skins from sub-Saharan Africa.[137]

Surveys in the Central African Republic's

transhumant pastoralists from the border area with Sudan moved in the area with their livestock. Rangers confiscated large amounts of poison in the camps of livestock herders who were accompanied by armed merchants. They engaged in poaching large herbivores, sale of bushmeat and trading leopard skins in Am Dafok.[138]

In Java, the leopard is threatened by illegal hunting and trade. Between 2011 and 2019, body parts of 51 Javan leopards were seized including six live individuals, 12 skins, 13 skulls, 20 canines and 22 claws.[139]

The leopard is considered

Gambia, Laos, Lesotho, Tajikistan, Vietnam and Israel.[3]

Human interaction

Cultural significance

Chauvet cave
Leopard head to hip ornament from the Court of Benin

Leopards have been featured in art, mythology and folklore of many countries. In

Ashanti also used the leopard as a symbol of leadership, and only the king was permitted to have a ceremonial leopard stool. Some African cultures considered the leopard to be a smarter, better hunter than the lion and harder to kill.[141]

In Rudyard Kipling's "How the Leopard Got His Spots", one of his Just So Stories, a leopard with no spots in the Highveld lives with his hunting partner, the Ethiopian. When they set off to the forest, the Ethiopian changed his brown skin, and the leopard painted spots on his skin.[143] A leopard played an important role in the 1938 Hollywood film Bringing Up Baby. African chiefs, European queens, Hollywood actors and burlesque dancers wore coats made of leopard skins.[141]

The leopard is a frequently used in

Democratic Republic of the Congo and Gabon, the last of which uses a black panther.[145]

Attacks on people

Main article: Leopard attack

The Leopard of Rudraprayag killed more than 125 people; the Panar Leopard was thought to have killed over 400 people. Both were shot by British hunter Jim Corbett.[146] The spotted devil of Gummalapur killed about 42 people in Karnataka, India.[147]

In captivity

Animal trainer with leopard

The

John of England at the Tower of London in the 13th century; around 1235, three of these animals were given to Henry III by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II.[148] In modern times, leopards have been trained and tamed in circuses.[141]

See also

References

  1. ^
    OCLC 62265494
    .
  2. ^
    doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.12.020
    .
  3. ^
    doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T15954A163991139.en
    . Retrieved 15 January 2022.
  4. ^ a b Lewis, C. T. & Short, C. (1879). "lěǒpardus". A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1069.
  5. ^ Liddell, H. G. & Scott, R. (1889). "λέο-πάρδος". A Greek–English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 884.
  6. ISBN 978-0-517-41425-5
    .
  7. S2CID 56160515
    .
  8. ^ Lewis, C. T. & Short, C. (1879). "panthera". A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1298.
  9. ^ Lewis, C. T. & Short, C. (1879). "pardus". A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1302.
  10. ISBN 9780521844185
    .
  11. ^ a b Mivart, St. G. J. (1900). "Different kind of Cats". The Cat: An Introduction to the Study of Backboned Animals, Especially Mammals. London: John Murray. pp. 391–439.
  12. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1932.tb01085.x
    .
  13. ^ a b c d e Nowell, K. & Jackson, P. (1996). "Leopard Panthera pardus (Linnaeus, 1758)". Wild Cats: status survey and conservation action plan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. Archived from the original on 2014-02-22.
  14. ^
    ISBN 978-1-86872-594-6
    .
  15. ISBN 978-93-5009-761-8
    .
  16. PMID 20961899
    .
  17. ^
    ISBN 978-977-416-254-1
    .
  18. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-08085-0
    .
  19. ^
    S2CID 44839740
    .
  20. ISBN 978-90-04-08876-4
    .
  21. S2CID 5446868
    .
  22. S2CID 19021807
    .
  23. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2010.00731.x
    .
  24. PMID 28379961
    .
  25. ^ Divyabhanusinh (1993). "On mutant leopards Panthera pardus from India". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 90 (1): 88−89.
  26. doi:10.4102/abc.v46i1.2034
    .
  27. ISBN 978-1-4081-8996-2
    .
  28. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8
    .
  29. ISBN 978-0-7894-7764-4
    .
  30. ^ "Is this the longest leopard in India?". The Times of India. 2016.
  31. ^ "Leopard shot in Bilaspur turns out to be a record breaker". The Tribune Trust. 2016.
  32. ^ Prater, S. H. (1921). "Record Panther Skull (P. p. pardus)". The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. XXVII (Part IV): 933–935.
  33. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1758). "Felis pardus". Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Vol. Tomus I (decima, reformata ed.). Holmiae: Laurentius Salvius. p. 41−42. (in Latin)
  34. ^ Oken, L. (1816). "1. Art, Panthera". Lehrbuch der Zoologie. 2. Abtheilung. Jena: August Schmid & Comp. p. 1052.
  35. ^ Ellerman, J. R.; Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1966). Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals 1758 to 1946 (Second ed.). London: British Museum of Natural History. pp. 315–317.
  36. ^ Allen, J. A. (1902). "Mammal names proposed by Oken in his 'Lehrbuch der Zoologie'" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 16 (27): 373−379.
  37. doi:10.1080/00222931709487018
    .
  38. ^ Pocock, R. I. (1939). "Panthera pardus". The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia: Volume 1. London: Taylor and Francis. pp. 222–239.
  39. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10041115.x
    .
  40. ^
    S2CID 304770. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 2011-09-10.
  41. ^ a b Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry, A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting, A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.; Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.; Luo, S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O’Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.; Bruford, M.; Groves, C.; Hoffmann, M.; Nowell, K.; Timmons, Z. & Tobe, S. (2017). "A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group" (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue 11): 73–75.
  42. ^ Meyer, F. A. A. (1794). "Über de la Metheries schwarzen Panther". Zoologische Annalen. Erster Band. Weimar: Im Verlage des Industrie-Comptoirs. pp. 394–396.
  43. doi:10.1017/S0030605315000988
    .
  44. ^ Cuvier, G. (1809). "Recherches sur les espėces vivantes de grands chats, pour servir de preuves et d'éclaircissement au chapitre sur les carnassiers fossils". Annales du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. Tome XIV: 136–164.
  45. ^ Hemprich, W.; Ehrenberg, C. G. (1830). "Felis, pardus?, nimr". In Dr. C. G. Ehrenberg (ed.). Symbolae Physicae, seu Icones et Descriptiones Mammalium quae ex Itinere per Africam Borealem et Asiam Occidentalem Friderici Guilelmi Hemprich et Christiani Godofredi Ehrenberg. Decas Secunda. Zoologica I. Mammalia II. Berolini: Officina Academica. pp. Plate 17.
  46. ^ Spalton, J. A. & Al Hikmani, H. M. (2006). "The Leopard in the Arabian Peninsula – Distribution and Subspecies Status" (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue 1): 4–8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-06-19.
  47. ^ Valenciennes, A. (1856). "Sur une nouvelles espèce de Panthère tué par M. Tchihatcheff à Ninfi, village situé à huit lieues est de Smyrne". Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences. 42: 1035–1039.
  48. doi:10.15298/rusjtheriol.05.1.06
    .
  49. ^ Schlegel, H. (1857). "Felis orientalis". Handleiding Tot de Beoefening der Dierkunde, Ie Deel. Breda: Boekdrukkerij van Nys. p. 23.
  50. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1862.tb06524.x
    .
  51. ^ Pocock, R. I. (1930). "The Panthers and Ounces of Asia". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 34 (2): 307–336.
  52. ^ Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1956). "The Ceylon leopard, a distinct subspecies". Spolia Zeylanica. 28: 115–116.
  53. S2CID 4348541
    .
  54. ^
    S2CID 41672825
    .
  55. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-923445-5
    .
  56. ^
    PMID 20138224. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 2016-03-05.
  57. ^
    PMID 22016768
    .
  58. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2001.tb01297.x
    .
  59. PMID 24225466
    .
  60. PMID 26518481
    .
  61. doi:10.1111/jzo.12348
    .
  62. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.08.032
    .
  63. ^ Schmid, E. (1940). "Variationstatistische Untersuchungen am Gebiss pleistozäner und rezenter Leoparden und anderer Feliden". Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde. 15: 1–179.
  64. doi:10.1127/0077-7749/2010/0117
    .
  65. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.05.009
    .
  66. ISBN 978-4-87974-691-7
    .
  67. PMID 34513335
    .
  68. ISBN 978-0-8493-2100-9
    .
  69. PMID 28584709
    .
  70. ^ Spalton, J. A. & Al Hikmani, H. M. (2006). "The Leopard in the Arabian Peninsula – Distribution and Subspecies Status" (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue 1): 4–8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-05-23.
  71. ^ Judas, J.; Paillat, P.; Khoja, A. & Boug, A. (2006). "Status of the Arabian leopard in Saudi Arabia" (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue 1): 11–19. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-09-19.
  72. ^ Al Jumaily, M.; Mallon, D. P.; Nasher, A. K. & Thowabeh, N. (2006). "Status Report on Arabian Leopard in Yemen". Cat News (Special Issue 1): 20–25.
  73. S2CID 90676105
    .
  74. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01432.x
    .
  75. ^ Jhala, Y.V.; Qureshi, Q. & Yadav, S.P. (2020). Status of leopards in India, 2018. Technical Report TR/2020/16 (Report). New Delhi and Dehradun: National Tiger Conservation Authority, Government of India and Wildlife Institute of India.
  76. ^ Arthreya, V. (2012). "Living with Leopards Outside Protected Areas in India". Conservation India.
  77. ^ Thapa, K.; Pradhan, N. M. B.; Berker, J.; Dhakal, M.; Bhandari, A. R.; Gurung, G. S.; Rai, D. P.; Thapa, G. J.; Shrestha, S. & Singh, G. R. (2013). "High elevation record of a leopard cat in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, Nepal". Cat News (58): 26–27.
  78. ^ Kittle, A. M.; Watson, A. C.; Chanaka Kumara, P. H. & Nimalka Sanjeewani, H. K. (2014). "Status and distribution of the leopard in the central hills of Sri Lanka". Cat News (56): 28−31.
  79. doi:10.11609/JoTT.o3731.6214-21
    .
  80. doi:10.1017/S0030605316001113
    .
  81. hdl:10722/232870
    .
  82. S2CID 73637721. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-10.
  83. ^ Robichaud, W.; Insua-Cao; Sisomphane, P. C. & Chounnavanh, S. (2010). "Appendix 4". A scoping mission to Nam Kan National Protected Area, Lao PDR. Fauna & Flora International. pp. 33−42.
  84. ^ Gray, T. N. & Phan, C. (2011). "Habitat preferences and activity patterns of the larger mammal community in Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Cambodia". The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. 59 (2): 311−318.
  85. ^ Gray, T. N. E. (2013). "Activity patterns and home ranges of Indochinese leopard Panthera pardus delacouri in the Eastern Plains Landscape, Cambodia" (PDF). Natural History Bulletin of the Siam Society. 59: 39−47. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-02-22.
  86. ^ Li, S.; Wang, D.; Lu, Z. & Mc Shea, W. J. (2010). "Cats living with pandas: The status of wild felids within giant panda range, China". Cat News. 52: 20–23.
  87. PMID 29949588
    .
  88. ^
    ISBN 978-0-226-77999-7
    .
  89. ISBN 9780824070175
    .
  90. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01942.x
    .
  91. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[0125:TASOCI]2.0.CO;2
    .
  92. ^ a b Hunter, L.; Balme, G.; Walker, C.; Pretorius, K. & Rosenberg, K. (2003). "The landscape ecology of leopards (Panthera pardus) in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: a preliminary project report" (PDF). Ecological Journal. 5: 24–30. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2009. open access
  93. doi:10.1017/S0030605306000743
    .
  94. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00565.x
    .
  95. ^
    ISBN 978-1-932846-11-9
    .
  96. ^
    ISBN 978-1-4081-8996-2
    .
  97. doi:10.1111/aje.12154
    .
  98. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1996.tb05296.x
    .
  99. ^ Marker, L. L. & Dickman, A. J. (2005). "Factors affecting leopard (Panthera pardus) spatial ecology, with particular reference to Namibian farmlands" (PDF). South African Journal of Wildlife Research. 35 (2): 105–115. open access
  100. ^ Bertram, B. C. R. (1982). "Leopard ecology as studied by radio tracking". Symposia of the Zoological Society of London. 49: 341–352.
  101. doi:10.1017/S0952836998002118
    .
  102. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb05806.x
    .
  103. S2CID 86140708
    .
  104. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00139.x. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 2012-11-05.
  105. JSTOR 1382285
    .
  106. ISBN 978-0-947430-55-9
    .
  107. ^ a b Hamilton, P. H. (1976). The movements of leopards in Tsavo National Park, Kenya, as determined by radio-tracking (M.Sc. thesis). Nairobi: University of Nairobi.
  108. ^
    S2CID 84619500
    .
  109. ^
    ISBN 978-0-394-47242-3
    .
  110. ^ Bothma, J. du P. (2005). "Water-use by southern Kalahari leopards" (PDF). South African Journal of Wildlife Research. 35: 131–137. open access
  111. ^
    S2CID 4343007. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 2019-09-29.
  112. ^ Kurt, F. & Jayasuriya, A. (1968). "Notes on a dead bear". Loris (11): 182–183.
  113. ^ Baskaran, N.; Sivaganesan, N. & Krishnamoorthy, J. (1997). "Food habits of sloth bear in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, southern India". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 94: 1–9.
  114. ISBN 978-0-226-51823-7
    .
  115. ISBN 978-0-19-513139-0
    .
  116. ^
    JSTOR 2989714
    .
  117. S2CID 84997827
    .
  118. ^ Owens, D. & Owens, M. (1980). "Hyenas of the Kalahari". Natural History. 89 (2): 50.
  119. ISBN 978-0-395-32214-7
    .
  120. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.08.007
    .
  121. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2000.tb01076.x
    .
  122. ^ Bhatnagar, C.; Mahur, M. (2010). "Observations on feeding behavior of a wild population of marsh crocodile in Baghdarrah Lake, Udaipur, Rajasthan". Reptile Rap. 10: 16–18.
  123. ISBN 978-1-55407-802-8
    .
  124. doi:10.1111/aje.12002
    .
  125. ^
    ISBN 978-2-8317-0045-8
    .
  126. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.1966.tb01746.x
    .
  127. ^ Pacifici, M.; Santini, L.; Di Marco, M.; Baisero, D.; Francucci, L.; Grottolo Marasini, G.; Visconti, P. & Rondinini, C. (2013). "Generation length for mammals". Nature Conservation (5): 87–94.
  128. ^ Hemmer, H. (1976). "Gestation period and postnatal development in felids". In Eaton, R.L. (ed.). The world's cats. Vol. 3. Carnivore Research Institute, Univ. Washington, Seattle. pp. 143–165.
  129. ^ Eaton, R.L. (1977). "Reproductive biology of the leopard". Zoologischer Garten. 47 (5): 329–351.
  130. ^
    ISBN 978-1-4081-8996-2
    .
  131. ^ "Leopard (Panthera pardus); Physical characteristics and distribution". Comparative Mammalian Brain Collections.
  132. ^ Salisbury, S. (2014). "Roxanne, oldest spotted leopard in captivity, dies at Acreage preserve". The Palm Beach Post. Archived from the original on 2014-08-11.
  133. PMID 27168983
    .
  134. PMID 28484625
    .
  135. ^ Raza, R.H.; Chauhan, D.S.; Pasha, M.K.S. & Sinha, S. (2012). Illuminating the blind spot: A study on illegal trade in Leopard parts in India (2001–2010) (PDF) (Report). New Delhi: TRAFFIC India, WWF India. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-09-24.
  136. ^ Bergin, D. & Nijman, V. (2014). "Open, Unregulated Trade in Wildlife in Morocco's Markets". TRAFFIC Bulletin. 26 (1): 65–70.
  137. S2CID 34533018
    .
  138. S2CID 213766740. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 2020-10-03.
  139. S2CID 233286106
    .
  140. doi:10.1080/00045605109352048. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 2006-09-14.
  141. ^
    ISBN 9781780233185
    .
  142. ^ a b "Benin: an African kingdom" (PDF). London: British Museum. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-08-05. Retrieved 2016-03-29.
  143. ^ Kipling, R. (1902). "How the Leopard Got His Spots" (PDF). Just So Stories. Macmillan.
  144. ISBN 978-0-8153-2952-7
    .
  145. ^ Pedersen, C. F. (1971). The International Flag Book in Color. Morrow.
  146. ^ Corbett, J. (1955). The Temple Tiger, and More Man-eaters of Kumaon. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  147. ^ Anderson, K. (1954). "The Spotted Devil of Gummalapur". Nine Man-Eaters and one Rogue. London: George Allen & Unwin. pp. 36–51.
  148. ^ Owen, J. (2005). "Medieval Lion Skulls Reveal Secrets of Tower of London 'Zoo'". National Geographic Magazine. Retrieved 2007-09-05.

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Panthera pardus (category)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leopard&oldid=1157355158"