American alligator
American alligator Temporal range:
| |
---|---|
At the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium in Powell, Ohio | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Reptilia |
Clade: | Archosauromorpha |
Clade: | Archosauriformes |
Order: | Crocodilia |
Family: | Alligatoridae |
Subfamily: | Alligatorinae |
Genus: | Alligator |
Species: | A. mississippiensis
|
Binomial name | |
Alligator mississippiensis (Daudin, 1802)
| |
Approximate range of American alligator | |
Synonyms[4] | |
The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), sometimes referred to colloquially as a gator or common alligator, is a large
Adult male American alligators measure 3.4 to 4.6 m (11.2 to 15.1 ft) in length, and can weigh up to 500 kg (1,100 lb), with unverified sizes of up to 5.84 m (19.2 ft) and weights of 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) making it the second largest member by length and the heaviest of the
American alligators are apex predators and consume fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Hatchlings feed mostly on invertebrates. They play an important role as ecosystem engineers in wetland ecosystems through the creation of alligator holes, which provide both wet and dry habitats for other organisms. Throughout the year (in particular during the breeding season), American alligators bellow to declare territory, and locate suitable mates.[11] Male American alligators use infrasound to attract females. Eggs are laid in a nest of vegetation, sticks, leaves, and mud in a sheltered spot in or near the water. Young are born with yellow bands around their bodies and are protected by their mother for up to one year.[12] This species displays parental care, which is rare for most reptiles. Mothers protect their eggs during the incubation period, and moves the hatchlings to the water using her mouth.[13]
The conservation status of the American alligator is listed as
.Taxonomy
The American alligator was first classified by French zoologist François Marie Daudin as Crocodilus mississipiensis in 1801. In 1807, Georges Cuvier created the genus Alligator;[14] the American alligator and the Chinese alligator are the only extant species in the genus. They are grouped in the family Alligatoridae with the caimans. The superfamily Alligatoroidea includes all crocodilians (fossil and extant) that are more closely related to the American alligator than to either the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) or the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus).[15][16]
Phylogeny
Members of this superfamily first arose in the late Cretaceous, about 100–65 million years ago (Mya). Leidyosuchus of Alberta is the earliest known fossil, from the Campanian era 83 to 72 Mya. Fossil alligatoroids have been found throughout Eurasia, because bridges across both the North Atlantic and the Bering Strait connected North America to Eurasia about 66 to 23 Mya.
Alligators and caimans split in North America during the late Cretaceous, and the caimans reached South America by the Paleogene, before the closure of the Isthmus of Panama during the Neogene period, from about 23 to 2.58 Mya. The Chinese alligator likely descended from a lineage that crossed the Bering land bridge during the Neogene. Fossils identical to the existing American alligator are found throughout the Pleistocene, from 2.5 million to 11.7 thousand years ago.[17] In 2016, a Late Miocene fossil skull of an alligator dating back to approximately 7-8 Mya was discovered in Marion County, Florida. Unlike the other extinct alligator species of the same genus, the fossil skull was virtually indistinguishable from that of the modern American alligator. This alligator and the American alligator are now considered to be sister taxa, meaning that the A. mississippiensis lineage has existed in North America for 7-8 million years.[1]
The alligator's full
Characteristics
Domestic American alligators range from long and slender to short and robust, possibly in response to variations in factors such as growth rate, diet, and climate.
Size
The American alligator is a relatively large species of crocodilian. On average, it is the largest species in the family Alligatoridae, with only the black caiman being possibly larger.[20] Weight varies considerably depending on length, age, health, season, and available food sources. Similar to many other reptiles that range expansively into temperate zones, American alligators from the northern end of their range, such as southern Arkansas, Alabama, and northern North Carolina, tend to reach smaller sizes. Large adult American alligators tend to be relatively robust and bulky compared to other similar-length crocodilians; for example, captive males measuring 3 to 4 m (9 ft 10 in to 13 ft 1 in) were found to weigh 200 to 350 kg (440 to 770 lb), although captive specimens may outweigh wild specimens due to lack of hunting behavior and other stressors.[21][22]
Large male American alligators reach an expected maximum size up to 4.6 m (15 ft 1 in) in length and weighing up to 500 kg (1,100 lb), while females reach an expected maximum of 3 m (9 ft 10 in).[5][6][23] However, the largest free-ranging female had a total length of 3.22 m (10 ft 7 in) and weighed 170 kg (370 lb).[24] On rare occasions, a large, old male may grow to an even greater length.[25][26]
Largest
During the 19th and 20th centuries, larger males reaching 5 to 6 m (16 ft 5 in to 19 ft 8 in) were reported.[27] The largest reported individual size was a male killed in 1890 by Edward McIlhenny[28] on Marsh Island, Louisiana, and reportedly measured at 5.84 m (19 ft 2 in) in length, but no voucher specimen was available, since the American alligator was left on a muddy bank after having been measured due to having been too massive to relocate.[26] If the size of this animal was correct, it would have weighed about 1,000 kg (2,200 lb).[29] In Arkansas, a man killed an American alligator that was 4.04 m (13 ft 3 in) and 626 kg (1,380 lb).[30] The largest American alligator ever killed in Florida was 5.31 m (17 ft 5 in), as reported by the Everglades National Park, although this record is unverified.[31][32] The largest American alligator scientifically verified in Florida for the period from 1977 to 1993 was reportedly 4.23 m (13 ft 11 in) and weighed 473 kg (1,043 lb), although another specimen (size estimated from skull) may have measured 4.54 m (14 ft 11 in).[21] A specimen that was 4.5 m (14 ft 9 in) long and weighed 458.8 kg (1,011.5 lb) is the largest American alligator killed in Alabama and has been declared the SCI world record in 2014.[33][34]
Reported sizes
Date | Location | Reported Length | Reported Weight | Reported Girth | Reported Skull Length | Scientifically Analyzed Length | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
January 2, 1890 | Lake Vermilion, Louisiana | 584.2 cm | not listed | not listed | not listed | not listed | Shot by Edward Avery McIlhenny. Body was too heavy to tow out of the mud.[35] |
1886 | Avery Island, Louisiana | 523.24 cm | not listed | not listed | not listed | not listed | Captured alive by John Avery and died en route to the Smithsonian Institution after a sailor poured green paint on its back.[36] |
March 1916 | Marsh Island, Louisiana | 561.34 cm | not listed | not listed | not listed | not listed | Killed by Max Touchet, a game warden on Marsh Island following an attempted live capture.[37] |
1956 | Lake Apopka, Florida | 530.86 cm | not listed | not listed | not listed | not listed | Estimated by Allan Woodward to have been 421.64 cm using head to length formula.[38][39] |
November 11, 2010 | St Johns River, Florida | 435.61 cm | 297 kg | not listed | not listed | 435.61 cm | [40] |
August 23, 2012 | Lake Talquin, Florida | 426.72 cm | not listed | not listed | 60.325 cm | 426.72 cm | [41]
|
August 16, 2014 | Alabama River, Alabama | 480 cm | 458.8 kg | not listed | not listed | 480 cm | [42] |
May 31, 2016 | Palmetto, Florida | 426.72 cm | not listed | not listed | not listed | not listed | Estimated to be between 426.72 cm and 457.2 cm when spotted.[43][44][45] |
September 26, 2020 | Lake Merrisach, Arkansas | 425.45 cm | 362.874 kg | not listed | not listed | not listed | [46] |
February 2, 2022 | Lake Washington, Florida | 401.32 cm | 410.501 kg | not listed | not listed | not listed | Killed by Doug Borries of Dynamic Outdoors TV after alligator began eating livestock.[47]
|
August 29, 2023 | Yazoo River, Mississippi | 434.34 cm | 364.00 kg | 167.64 cm | not listed | 434.34 cm | [48] [49] |
Average
American alligators do not normally reach such extreme sizes. In mature males, most specimens grow up to about 3.4 m (11 ft 2 in) in length, and weigh up to 360 kg (790 lb),[7] while in females, the mature size is normally around 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in), with a body weight up to 91 kg (201 lb).[8][9] In Newnans Lake, Florida, adult males averaged 73.2 kg (161 lb) in weight and 2.47 m (8 ft 1 in) in length, while adult females averaged 55.1 kg (121 lb) and measured 2.22 m (7 ft 3 in).[50] In Lake Griffin State Park, Florida, adults weighed on average 57.9 kg (128 lb).[51] Weight at sexual maturity per one study was stated as averaging 30 kg (66 lb) while adult weight was claimed as 160 kg (350 lb).[52]
Relation to age
There is a common belief stated throughout reptilian literature that crocodilians, including the American alligator, exhibit indeterminate growth, meaning the animal continues to grow for the duration of its life. However, these claims are largely based on assumptions and observations of juvenile and young adult crocodilians, and recent studies are beginning to contradict this claim. For example, one long-term mark-recapture study (1979–2015) done at the Tom Yawkey Wildlife Center in South Carolina found evidence to support patterns of determinate growth, with growth ceasing upon reaching a certain age (43 years for males and 31 years for females).[53]
Sexual dimorphism
While noticeable in very mature specimens, the sexual dimorphism in size of the American alligator is relatively modest among crocodilians.[54] For contrast, the sexual dimorphism of saltwater crocodiles is much more extreme, with mature males nearly twice as long as and at least four times as heavy as female saltwater crocodiles.[55] Given that female American alligators have relatively higher survival rates at an early age and a large percentage of given populations consists of immature or young breeding American alligators, relatively few large mature males of the expected mature length of 3.4 m (11 ft 2 in) or more are typically seen.[56]
Color
Dorsally, adult American alligators may be olive, brown, gray, or black. However, they are on average one of the most darkly colored modern crocodilians (although other alligatorid family members are also fairly dark), and can reliably be distinguished by color via their more blackish dorsal scales against crocodiles.[25] Meanwhile, their undersides are cream-colored.[57] Some American alligators are missing or have an inhibited gene for melanin, which makes them albino. These American alligators are extremely rare and almost impossible to find in the wild. They could only survive in captivity, as they are very vulnerable to the sun and predators.[58]
Jaws, teeth, and snout
American alligators have 74–80 teeth.[27] As they grow and develop, the morphology of their teeth and jaws change significantly.[59] Juveniles have small, needle-like teeth that become much more robust and narrow snouts that become broader as the individuals develop.[59] These morphological changes correspond to shifts in the American alligators' diets, from smaller prey items such as fish and insects to larger prey items such as turtles, birds, and other large vertebrates.[59] American alligators have broad snouts, especially in captive individuals. When the jaws are closed, the edges of the upper jaws cover the lower teeth, which fit into the jaws' hollows. Like the spectacled caiman, this species has a bony nasal ridge, though it is less prominent.[27] American alligators are often mistaken for a similar animal: the American crocodile. An easy characteristic to distinguish the two is the fourth tooth. Whenever an American alligator's mouth is closed, the fourth tooth is no longer visible. It is enclosed in a pocket in the upper jaw.
Bite
Adult American alligators held the record as having the strongest laboratory-measured bite of any living animal, measured at up to 13,172 N (1,343.2 kgf; 2,961 lbf). This experiment had not been, at the time of the paper published, replicated in any other crocodilians, and the same laboratory was able to measure a greater bite force of 16,414 N (1,673.8 kgf; 3,690 lbf) in saltwater crocodiles;[60][61] notwithstanding this very high biting force, the muscles opening the American alligator's jaw are quite weak, and the jaws can be held closed by hand or tape when an American alligator is captured. No significant difference is noted between the bite forces of male and female American alligators of equal size.[59] Another study noted that as the American alligator increases in size, the force of its bite also increases.[62]
Movement
When on land, an American alligator moves either by sprawling or walking, the latter involving the reptile lifting its belly off the ground. The sprawling of American alligators and other crocodylians is not similar to that of salamanders and lizards, being similar to walking. Therefore, the two forms of land locomotion can be termed the "low walk" and the "high walk". Unlike most other land vertebrates, American alligators increase their speed through the distal rather than proximal ends of their limbs.[63] In the water, American alligators swim like fish, moving their pelvic regions and tails from side to side.[64] During respiration, air flow is unidirectional, looping through the lungs during inhalation and exhalation;[65] the American alligator's abdominal muscles can alter the position of the lungs within the torso, thus shifting the center of buoyancy, which allows the American alligator to dive, rise, and roll within the water.[66]
Distribution
American alligators, being native both to the
Conservation status
American alligators are currently listed as least concern by the IUCN Red List,[2] even though from the 1800s to the mid-1900s, they were being hunted and poached by humans unsustainably.
Historically, hunting and habitat loss have severely affected American alligator populations throughout their range, and whether the species would survive was in doubt. In 1967, the American alligator was listed as an endangered species (under a law that was the precursor to the
Both the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and state wildlife agencies in the South contributed to the American alligator's recovery. Protection under the Endangered Species Act allowed the species to recuperate in many areas where it had been depleted. States began monitoring their American alligator populations to ensure that they would continue to grow. In 1987, the USFWS removed the animal from the endangered species list, as it was considered to be fully recovered.[74] The USFWS still regulates the legal trade in American alligators and their products to protect still endangered crocodilians that may be passed off as American alligators during trafficking.[73]
American alligators are listed under Appendix II of the
Habitat
They inhabit swamps, streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes. As well as wetland prairies interspersed with shallow open water and canals with associated levees.
In some areas of their range, American alligators are an unusual example of urban wildlife; golf courses are often favored by the species due to an abundance of water and a frequent supply of prey animals such as fish and birds.[79][80]
Cold tolerance
American alligators are less vulnerable to cold than American crocodiles. Unlike an American crocodile, which would immediately succumb to the cold and drown in water at 45 °F (7 °C) or less, an American alligator can survive in such temperatures for some time without displaying any signs of discomfort.[81] This adaptiveness is thought to be why American alligators are widespread further north than the American crocodile.[81] In fact, the American alligator is found farther from the equator and is more equipped to handle cooler conditions than any other crocodilian.[82] When the water begins to freeze, American alligators go into a period of brumation; they stick their snouts through the surface, which allows them to breathe above the ice,[77] and they can remain in this state for several days.[83]
Ecology and behavior
Basking
American alligators primarily bask on shore, but also climb into and perch on tree limbs to bask if no shoreline is available. This is not often seen, since if disturbed, they quickly retreat back into the water by jumping from their perch.[84]
Holes
American alligators modify wetland habitats, most dramatically in flat areas such as the Everglades, by constructing small ponds known as alligator holes. This behavior has qualified the American alligator to be considered a keystone species. Alligator holes retain water during the dry season and provide a refuge for aquatic organisms, which survive the dry season by seeking refuge in alligator holes, so are a source of future populations. The construction of nests along the periphery of alligator holes, as well as a buildup of soils during the excavation process, provides drier areas for other reptiles to nest and a place for plants that are intolerant of inundation to colonize. Alligator holes are an oasis during the Everglades dry season, so are consequently important foraging sites for other organisms.[85] In the limestone depressions of cypress swamps, alligator holes tend to be large and deep, while those in marl prairies and rocky glades are usually small and shallow, and those in peat depressions of ridge and slough wetlands are more variable.[86]
Prey
Bite and mastication
The teeth of the American alligator are designed to grip prey, but cannot rip or chew flesh like teeth of some other predators (such as
Tool use
American alligators have been documented using lures to hunt prey such as birds.
Aquatic vs terrestrial
Fish and other aquatic prey taken in the water or at the water's edge form the major part of American alligator's diet and may be eaten at any time of the day or night. Adult American alligators also spend considerable time hunting on land, up to 160 feet (50 m) from water, ambushing terrestrial animals on trailsides and road shoulders. Usually, terrestrial hunting occurs on nights with warm temperatures.[92] When hunting terrestrial prey, American alligators may also ambush them from the edge of the water by grabbing them and pulling the prey into the water, the preferred method of predation of larger crocodiles.[25]
Additionally, American alligators have recently been filmed and documented killing and eating sharks and rays; four incidents documented indicated that bonnetheads, lemon sharks, Atlantic stingrays, and nurse sharks are components of the animal's diet. Sharks are also known to prey on American alligators, in turn, indicating that encounters between the two predators are common.[93][94]
Common
American alligators are considered an apex predator throughout their range. They are opportunists and their diet is determined largely by both their size and age and the size and availability of prey. Most American alligators eat a wide variety of animals, including invertebrates, fish, birds, turtles, snakes, amphibians, and mammals. Hatchlings mostly feed on invertebrates such as insects, insect larvae, snails, spiders, and worms, as well as small fish and frogs.[95][96] As they grow, American alligators gradually expand to larger prey. Once an American alligator reaches full size and power in adulthood, any animal living in the water or coming to the water to drink is potential prey. Most animals captured by American alligators are considerably smaller than itself.[27] A few examples of animals consumed are largemouth bass, spotted gar, freshwater pearl mussels, American green tree frogs, yellow mud turtles, cottonmouths, common moorhens, and feral wild boars.[95] Stomach contents show, among native mammals, muskrats and raccoons are some of the most commonly eaten species.[97] In Louisiana, where introduced nutria are common, they are perhaps the most regular prey for adult American alligators, although only larger adults commonly eat this species.[98][97] It has also been reported that large American alligators prey on medium-sized American alligators, which had preyed on hatchlings and smaller juveniles.[99]
If an American alligator's primary food resource is not available, it will sometimes feed on carrion and non-prey items such as rocks and artificial objects, like bottle caps. These items help the American alligator in the process of digestion by crushing up the meat and bones of animals, especially animals with shells.[95]
Large animals
Other animals may occasionally be eaten, even large deer or feral wild boars, but these are not normally part of the diet. American alligators occasionally prey on large mammals, but usually do so when fish and smaller prey levels go down.[100] Rarely, American alligators have been observed killing and eating bobcats, but such events are not common and have little effect on bobcat populations.[101][102] Although American alligators have been listed as predators of the Nilgai and the West Indian manatees, very little evidence exists of such predation.[103] In the 2000s, when invasive Burmese pythons first occupied the Everglades, American alligators have been recorded preying on sizable snakes, possibly controlling populations and preventing the invasive species from spreading northwards.[104] However, the python is also known to occasionally prey on alligators, a form of both competition and predation.[105] American alligator predation on Florida panthers is rare, but has been documented. Such incidents usually involve a panther trying to cross a waterway or coming down to a swamp or river to get a drink.[106] American alligator predation on American black bears has also been recorded.[107][108][109]
Domestic animals
Occasionally, domestic animals, including dogs, cats, and calves, are taken as available, but are secondary to wild and feral prey.[27] Other prey, including snakes, lizards, and various invertebrates, are eaten occasionally by adults.[25]
Birds
Water birds, such as herons, egrets, storks, waterfowl and large dabbling rails such as gallinules or coots, are taken when possible. Occasionally, unwary adult birds are grabbed and eaten by American alligators, but most predation on bird species occurs with unsteady fledgling birds in late summer, as fledgling birds attempt to make their first flights near the water's edge.[25]
Fruit
In 2013, American alligators and other crocodilians were reported to also eat fruit.
Cooperative hunting
Additionally, American alligators engage in what seems to be cooperative hunting.[113][114] One observation of cooperative hunting techniques was where there are pushing American alligators and catching American alligators and they were observed taking turns in each position. Another observation said that about 60 American alligators gathered in an area and would form a semicircle with about half of them and would push the fish closer to the bank. Once one of the American alligators caught a fish another one would enter into its spot, and it would take the fish to the resting area. This was reported to have occurred two days in a row.[115]
In Florida and East Texas
The diet of adult American alligators from central Florida lakes is dominated by fish, but the species is highly opportunistic based upon local availability. In
In East Texas, diets were diverse and adult American alligators took mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates (e.g. snails) in often equal measure as they did fish.[118]
Vocalizations
Mechanism
An American alligator is able to
Calls
Crocodilians are the most vocal of all non-avian reptiles and have a variety of different calls depending on the age, size, and sex of the animal.[121] The American alligator can perform specific vocalizations to declare territory, signal distress, threaten competitors, and locate suitable mates. Juveniles can perform a high-pitched hatchling call (a "yelping" trait common to many crocodilian species' hatchling young)[122] to alert their mothers when they are ready to emerge from the nest. Juveniles also make a distress call to alert their mothers if they are being threatened. Adult American alligators can growl, hiss, or cough to threaten others and declare territory.
Bellowing
Both males and females bellow loudly by sucking air into their lungs and blowing it out in intermittent, deep-toned roars to attract mates and declare territory.[123] Males are known to use infrasound during mating bellows. Their bellowing initiates the beginning of the courtship period for American Alligators.[124] Bellowing is performed in a "head oblique, tail arched" posture. Infrasonic waves from a bellowing male can cause the surface of the water directly over and to either side of his back to literally "sprinkle",[125] in what is commonly called the "water dance".[126] Large bellowing "choruses" of American alligators during the breeding season are commonly initiated by females and perpetuated by males.[127] Observers of large bellowing choruses have noted they are often felt more than they are heard due to the intense infrasound emitted by males. American alligators bellow in B flat (specifically "B♭1", defined as an audio frequency of 58.27 Hz), and bellowing choruses can be induced by tuba players, sonic booms, and large aircraft.[128]
Lifespan
American alligators typically live to the age of 50, and possibly over 70 years old. Males reach sexual maturity at around 11.6 years, and females at around 15.8 years. Although it was originally thought that American alligators never stop growing, studies have now found that males stop growing at around the age of 43 years, and females stop growing at around the age of 31 years.[53]
Reproduction
Breeding season
The breeding season begins in the spring. On spring nights, American alligators gather in large numbers for group courtship, in the aforementioned "water dances".[129] The female builds a nest of vegetation, sticks, leaves, and mud in a sheltered spot in or near the water.
Eggs
After the female lays her 20 to 50 white eggs, about the size of a goose egg, she covers them with more vegetation, which heats as it decays, helping to keep the eggs warm. This differs from Nile crocodiles, which lay their eggs in pits.[81] The temperature at which American alligator eggs develop determines their sex (see temperature-dependent sex determination). Studies have found that eggs hatched at a temperature below 88.7 °F (31.5 °C) or a temperature above 94.1 °F (34.5 °C) will produce female offspring, while those at a temperature between 90.5 and 92.3 °F (32.5 and 33.5 °C) will produce male offspring.[130] The nests built on levees are warmer, thus produce males, while the cooler nests of wet marsh produce females.[131] The female remains near the nest throughout the 65-day incubation period, protecting it from intruders. When the young begin to hatch — their "yelping" calls can sometimes even be heard just before hatching commences — the mother quickly digs them out and carries them to the water in her mouth,[27] as some other crocodilian species are known to do.
Young
The young are tiny replicas of adults, with a series of yellow bands around their bodies that serve as camouflage.[27] Hatchlings gather into pods and are guarded by their mother and keep in contact with her through their "yelping" vocalizations. Young American alligators eat small fish, frogs, crayfish, and insects.[132] They are preyed on by large fish, birds, raccoons, Florida panthers, and adult American alligators.[27] Mother American alligators eventually become more aggressive towards their young, which encourages them to disperse.[132] Young American alligators grow 3–8 in (7.6–20.3 cm) a year and reach adulthood at 6 ft (1.8 m).[77]
Parasites
American alligators are commonly infected with parasites. In a 2016 Texas study, 100% of the specimens collected were infected with parasites, and by at least 20 different species of parasites, including lung
Interactions with exotic species
Nutria were introduced into coastal marshes from South America in the mid-20th century, and their population has since exploded into the millions. They cause serious damage to coastal marshes and may dig burrows in levees. Hence, Louisiana has had a bounty to try to reduce nutria numbers. Large American alligators feed heavily on nutria, so American alligators may not only control nutria populations in Louisiana, but also prevent them spreading east into the Everglades. Since hunting and trapping preferentially take the large American alligators that are the most important in eating nutria, some changes in harvesting may be needed to capitalize on their ability to control nutria.[98]
Recently, a population of Burmese pythons became established in Everglades National Park. Substantial American alligator populations in the Everglades might be a contributing factor, as a competitor, in keeping the python populations low, preventing the spread of the species north. While events of predation by Burmese pythons on sizable American alligators have been observed,[105][134][135] no evidence of a net negative effect has been seen on overall American alligator populations.[136]
Indicators of environmental restoration
American alligators play an important role in the
Relationship with humans
Attacks on humans
American alligators are capable of killing humans, but fatal attacks are rare. Mistaken identity leading to an attack is always possible, especially in or near cloudy waters. American alligators are often less aggressive towards humans than larger crocodile species, a few of which (mainly the Nile and saltwater crocodiles) may prey on humans with some regularity.[26][140] Alligator bites are serious injuries, due to the reptile's sheer bite force and risk of infection. Even with medical treatment, an American alligator bite may still result in a fatal infection.[141]
As human populations increase, and as they build houses in low-lying areas, or fish or hunt near water, incidents are inevitable where humans intrude on American alligators and their habitats. Since 1948, 257 documented attacks on humans in Florida (about five incidents per year) have been reported, of which an estimated 23 resulted in death.[142] Only nine fatal attacks occurred in the United States throughout the 1970s–1990s, but American alligators killed 12 people between 2001 and 2007. An additional report of alligator attacks showed a total of 376 injuries and 15 deaths recorded all from 1948 to 2004, leading this to an increase of the alligator population.[143] In May 2006, American alligators killed three Floridians in less than a week.[144] At least 28 fatal attacks by American alligators have occurred in the United States since 1970.
Wrestling
Since the late 1880s, alligator wrestling has been a source of entertainment for some. Created by the Miccosukee and Seminole tribes prior to the arrival of Europeans, this tourism tradition remains popular despite criticism from animal-rights activists.[145]
Farming
Today, alligator farming is a large, growing industry in Georgia, Florida, Texas, and Louisiana. These states produce a combined annual total of some 45,000 alligator hides. Alligator hides bring good prices and hides in the 6- to 7-ft range have sold for $300 each.[146] The market for alligator meat is growing, and about 300,000 pounds (140,000 kg) of meat are produced annually.[147] According to the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, raw alligator meat contains roughly 200 Calories (840 kJ) per 3-oz (85-g) portion, of which 27 Calories (130 kJ) come from fat.
Culture and film
The American alligator is the official
Several organizations and products from Florida have been named after the animal."Gators" has been the nickname of the University of Florida's sports teams since 1911. In 1908, a printer made a spur-of-the-moment decision to print an alligator emblem on a shipment of the school's football pennants.[151] The mascot stuck, and was made official in 1911, perhaps because the team captain's nickname was Gator.[152] Allegheny College and San Francisco State University both have Gators as their mascots, as well.[153]
The
See also
- Chinese alligator, the other living species of alligator
- Muja, the oldest living alligator in captivity, lived in Belgrade Zoo, Serbia
- Berlin Zoological Garden during World War II
- The Alligator People
- Gatorland
- Brazos Bend State Park
- Sewer alligator
References
- ^ S2CID 88200803.
- ^ .
- ^ a b "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
- ^ Species Alligator mississippiensis at The Reptile Database . www.reptile-database.com.
- ^ a b American Alligators, American Alligator Pictures, American Alligator Facts – National Geographic. Animals.nationalgeographic.com.
- ^ a b American alligator Archived April 11, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Philadelphia Zoo.
- ^ a b "American Alligator". www.animalspot.net. June 16, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
- ^ a b "Gator factsheet" (PDF). Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. Retrieved August 14, 2012.
- ^ a b "American Alligator Fact Sheet". The National Zoo. Retrieved December 30, 2013.
- ^ Virginia Living Museum. (2016, April 30). Herp highlight #1: American alligator. Retrieved April 08, 2021, from https://thevlm.org/herp-highlight-1-american-alligator/
- .
- ^ Pajerski, Lauren; Schechter, Benjamin; Street, Robin (2000). "Alligator mississippiensis". University of Michigan Museum of Zoology.
- ^ Merchant, M., Savage, D., Cooper, A., Slaughter, M., Perkin, J. S., & Murray, C. M. (2018). Nest attendance patterns in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Copeia, 106(3), 421-426.
- ^ Alligator Cuvier, 1807. ITIS.gov
- S2CID 86624124. Archived from the original(PDF) on December 31, 2019.
- PMID 34567843.
- JSTOR 3889340.
- PMID 9402737.
- PMID 25504731.
- ^ Thorbjarnarson, J. B. (2010). Black caiman Melanosuchus niger. Crocodiles. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, 29–39.
- ^ JSTOR 1564733.
- S2CID 42676388.
- ISBN 978-0-520-26671-1.
- S2CID 232326848.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8160-2174-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Crocodilian Species—American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)". Flmnh.ufl.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2008.
- ^ Woodward, A. R., White, J. H., & Linda, S. B. (1995). Maximum size of the alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Journal of Herpetology, 507-513.
- PMID 6141029.
- ^ "Record gator caught in Southwest Arkansas". FoxNews.com. Retrieved March 15, 2014.
- ^ Everglades National Park Flora & Fauna Page. Everglades National Park
- ^ Florida alligator Archived December 30, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Floridaadventuring.com (March 2, 2016). Retrieved on 2016-09-07.
- S2CID 86247523.
- S2CID 92148606.
- ^ "19-Foot Alligator: The Fascinating True Story". June 26, 2018.
- ISBN 978-0916984007.
- ISBN 978-0851122359.
- ISBN 978-0231032247.
- ^ "Gator Tales". August 18, 1996.
- ^ Live Science Staff (November 11, 2010). "Alligator Hunter Nabs Florida's Longest Gator". livescience.com.
- ^ "Huge alligator — with largest head ever found in Florida — caught and killed". New York Daily News. August 23, 2012. Retrieved February 25, 2024.
- ^ "The Largest Alligator Ever Measured". August 2, 2015.
- ^ "WATCH: Massive gator strolls through Palmetto golf course". May 31, 2016.
- ^ "Famous 15-foot gator named 'Chubbs' returns to Florida golf course". Fox News. October 16, 2018.
- ^ Gomez, Melissa (October 19, 2018). "How is Chubbs the Alligator These Days? Glad You Asked". The New York Times.
- ^ "Longest alligator in Arkansas history killed in Dumas". September 27, 2020.
- ^ "Hunter bags 905-pound, problem-causing alligator; lively debate ensues". February 2, 2022.
- Independent.co.uk. August 28, 2023.
- ^ Bella, Timothy (August 28, 2023). "Record 14-foot monster alligator caught in Mississippi: 'It was pandemonium'". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 25, 2024.
- ^ JSTOR 1563922.
- PMID 18436661.
- S2CID 55795562.
- ^ S2CID 89048080.
- S2CID 84645749.
- S2CID 56360888.
- .
- ^ "American Alligator: Species Profile". US National Park Service. Retrieved August 14, 2012.
- ^ "Zoo keeps albino alligator in the dark". NBC News.com. May 11, 2007. Retrieved August 15, 2012.
- ^ S2CID 241524.
- .
- PMID 22431965.
- ^ Erickson, G. M., Lappin, A. K., & Vliet, K. A. (2003). The ontogeny of bite-force performance in American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Journal of Zoology, 260(3), 317–327
- PMID 9716509.
- JSTOR 1445326. Archived from the original(PDF) on October 21, 2013.
- S2CID 206522844.
- PMID 18344489.
- ^ Sigler, Luis (September 2007). "Searching for the northern and southern distribution limits of two crocodilian species: Alligator mississippiensis and Crocodylus moreletii in South Texas, US, and in northern Tamaulipas, Mexico". Retrieved May 12, 2018.
- ^ "NAS - Nonindigenous Aquatic Species: Alligator mississippiensis". USGS.
- ^ "American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) - Species Profile". Nas.er.usgs.gov. Retrieved March 16, 2022.
- ^ "Alligators have been sighted in Tennessee". www.tn.gov. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
- ^ Outdoors, Grand View (July 2, 2019). "Alligators Expanding Range, Confirmed in…". Grand View Outdoors. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
- ^ VLM Staff (April 30, 2016). "Herp Highlight #1: American Alligator". TheVLM.org. Virginia Living Museum (VLM). Retrieved April 8, 2021.
- ^ a b "American Alligator Alligator mississippiensis" (PDF). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. February 2008. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
- ^ captain jacks air boat tours Retrieved June 26, 2020.
- ISSN 0022-541X.
- ^ "Elusive Chattahoochee alligator caught in Cobb County". myajc. Retrieved December 17, 2016.
- ^ a b c "American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)". Savannah River Ecology Lab. Retrieved August 16, 2012.
- ^ "What's the difference between a crocodile and an alligator?". Flmnh.ufl.edu. Archived from the original on October 11, 2012. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
- ^ "Alligator hazard is par for the course at Florida golf club". The Guardian. March 12, 2015. Retrieved January 20, 2022.
- ^ "Enormous alligator spotted on Florida golf course". The Independent. November 12, 2020. Archived from the original on November 13, 2020. Retrieved January 20, 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7153-5272-4.
- S2CID 31045078.
- ^ January 2019, Jeanna Bryner 25 (January 25, 2019). "How Alligators Survive in a Frozen Pond: They 'Snorkel'". livescience.com. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Dinets, Vladimir; Britton, Adam; Shirley, Matthew (2013). "Climbing behaviour in extant crocodilians" (PDF). Herpetology Notes. 7: 3–7. (published online January 25, 2014)
- ^ Rice, Ken G.; Mazzotti, Frank (October 2005). "American Alligator Ecology and Monitoring for the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan" (PDF). University of Florida IFAS Extension.
- S2CID 85653669.[permanent dead link]
- ISSN 0952-8369.
- ^ WEC203/UW230: Living with Alligators: A Florida Reality. Edis.ifas.ufl.edu. Retrieved on August 21, 2012.
- S2CID 84655220.
- ^ "Crocodiles are cleverer than previously thought: Some crocodiles use lures to hunt their prey". ScienceDaily. December 4, 2013. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
- ^ V. Dinets, J.C. Brueggen & J.D. Brueggen (2015) Crocodilians use tools for hunting, Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 27:1, 74-78, DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2013.858276
- ^ Dinets, V. L. (2011). "On terrestrial hunting in crocodilians" (PDF). Herpetological Bulletin. 114: 15–18. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 15, 2011.
- ^ Jason Bittel (September 20, 2017). "Alligators Attack and Eat Sharks, Study Confirms". National Geographic. Archived from the original on September 20, 2017.
- S2CID 90288005.
- ^ a b c "Alligator mississippiensis (Alligator, Gator, American alligator, Florida alligator, Mississippi alligator, Louisiana alligator.)". Animal Diversity Web.
- ^ "Crocodilian Species - American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)".
- ^ JSTOR 3799434.
- ^
- ^ Rootes, W. L., & Chabreck, R. H. (1993). Cannibalism in the American alligator. Herpetologica, 99–107
- ^ "American Alligator". News Daily. Archived from the original on March 18, 2015. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
- ^ "Gator eats bobcat". Flickr. November 7, 2012. Retrieved November 7, 2012.
- ^ "Sneaky alligator nearly eats bobcat". Kens5. Archived from the original on January 11, 2014. Retrieved June 1, 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-679-44631-6.
- PMID 22308381.
- ^ PMID 22443430.
- ISBN 0-7613-0049-X.
- ^ "American Alligator". Animal List.
- ^ "Alligators". Aquatic Community.
- ^ "Key West Florida Attractions | Alligator Exhibit". Key West Aquarium. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
- ^ Choi, Charles Q. (August 30, 2013). "Crocodiles and alligators like to chomp down on ... fruit !". NBC News: Science. Retrieved August 31, 2013.
- ^ Platt, S.G., Elsey, R.M., Liu, H., Rainwater, T.R., Nifong, J.C., Rosenblatt, A.E., Heithaus, M.R. and Mazzotti, F.J. (2013), Frugivory and seed dispersal by crocodilians. J Zool, 291: 87-99. https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12052
- .
- ^ F. Wayne King, John Thorbjarnarson and Carlos Yamashita. 1998. Cooperative Feeding, A Misinterpreted and Under-Reported Behavior of Crocodilians. 9 p. Available at: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/herpetology/links/cooperative-feeding (Online: 1 August 1998)
- S2CID 84672219.
- ^ Vladimir Dinets (2015) Apparent coordination and collaboration in cooperatively hunting crocodilians, Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 27:2, 244-250, DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2014.915432
- ^ Rice, A. N. (2004). Diet and condition of American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in three central Florida lakes (Doctoral dissertation, University of Florida).
- ^ Gabrey, S. W. (2010). "Demographic and geographic variation in food habits of American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in Louisiana" (PDF). Herpetological Conservation and Biology. 5 (2): 241–250.
- S2CID 85181112.
- PMID 21865521.
- PMID 25657203.
- ^ Britton, Adam. "Crocodile Talk". University of Bristol and Florida Museum of Natural History.
- ^ "Yelping" of alligator hatchlings. YouTube.com (September 3, 2013). Retrieved on 2016-09-07.
- ^ Basic fact defenders.org [permanent dead link]
- ISSN 0003-1569.
- ^ Male alligator "sprinkling" while bellowing in near-infrasound during courtship. YouTube.com (April 28, 2010). Retrieved on 2016-09-07.
- .
- ^ Garrick, L.; Lang, J.; Herzog, H. (1978). "Social Signals of Adult American Alligators". American Zoologist. 60 (3): 153–192.
- ^ Kilnkenberg, Jeff (June 21, 2013). "Alligators in B Flat? Gatorland's denizens roar in ecstasy". Tampa Bay Times.
"We want to hit the B flat two octaves below middle C, " Mickelsen reminded his young assistant. "At 57 hertz. That's what that old scientific report advised...BLAAAA!...Though only a few clouds scudded across the sky, we heard what sounded like thunder in the distance. It was a randy male American alligator, turned on by tuba, telling the world that he was a stud...He lifted his upper body out of the water while lowering the middle and raising his tail. Though he barely moved, a droplet spray exploded from the water covering his back. "The water dance!" Tim Williams cried. Toxic let loose a roar that shook the earth.
- ^ Dinets, V. L. (2010). "Nocturnal behavior of the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) in the wild during the mating season". Herpetological Bulletin. 111: 4–11.
- PMID 32345164.
- S2CID 4307265.
- ^ JSTOR 1563716.
- S2CID 90639824.
- ^ Gator-guzzling python comes to messy end. Associated Press (October 5, 2005). Retrieved 2008-03-11.
- ^ Butler, Rhett A. (October 5, 2005) Python explodes after swallowing 6-foot alligator in Florida Everglades. Mongabay.com. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
- U.S. Geological Survey (February 20, 2008). USGS Maps Show Potential Non-Native Python Habitat Along Three U.S. Coasts. www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
- ^ Harvey, Rebecca G.; Brandt, Laura A.; Mazzotti, Frank J. (October 2011). "The American Alligator: An Indicator Species for Everglades Restoration" (PDF). University of Florida IFAS Extension.
- ISBN 0-521-78367-4.
- ^ White, C.; Frederick, P.; Main, M.; Rodgers, J. (May 2005). "Nesting Island Creation for Wading Birds" (PDF). University of Florida IFAS Extension.
- ^ Crocodile and Alligator Differences – Animal Facts for Kids. Sciencekids.co.nz (July 11, 2012). Retrieved on 2012-08-21.
- S2CID 39551914.
- ^ McLaughlin, Eliott C.; Almasy, Steve and Shoichet, Catherine E. (2016-06-16)Disney alligator attack: Resort to add warning signs, source says. CNN
- S2CID 37639089.
- ^ "A String of Deaths by Gators in Florida". nytimes.com. May 15, 2006. Retrieved May 15, 2006.
- ^ "Alligator wrestling – cruelty or tradition?". BBC News.com. March 17, 2009. Retrieved August 29, 2012.
- ^ Lane, Thomas J.; Ruppert, Kathleen C. (June 2008). "Alternative Opportunities for Small Farms:Alligator Production Review" (PDF). University of Florida. Retrieved August 29, 2012.
- ^ Reig Eimeric (2006). "Gator Maters: Florida farmers find lucrative business mating alligators". Orange and Blue Magazine. Archived from the original on May 30, 2013. Retrieved August 29, 2012.
- ^ "Alligator". Florida State Symbols. Florida Division of Historical Resources. 2013. Retrieved April 6, 2013.
- ^ "About Louisiana". Louisiana.gov. State of Louisiana. Archived from the original on March 24, 2013. Retrieved April 6, 2013.
- ^ 302 (PDF). July 1, 2005. Retrieved April 6, 2013.
- ^ "History of the Gator". Official website of Gator Athletics. University of Florida. Retrieved October 17, 2017.
- ^ "History: 1906–1927, early Gainesville". University of Florida. Archived from the original on December 31, 2010. Retrieved February 13, 2011.
- ^ "Why Gators?". Allegheny College. Retrieved March 30, 2019.
Further reading
- Boulenger GA (1889). Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians, and Crocodiles in the British Museum (Natural History). New Edition. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, printers). x + 311 pp. + Plates I-VI. (Alligator mississippiensis, p. 290).
- Daudin FM (1802). Histoire Naturelle, Générale et Particulière des Reptiles; Ouvrage faisant suite à l'Histoire Naturelle générale et particulière, composée par Leclerc de Buffon; et rédigée par C.S. Sonnini, membre de plusieurs sociétés savantes. Tome Second [Volume 2]. 432 pp. Paris: F. Dufart. ("Crocodilus mississipiensis [sic]", new species, pp. 412–416). (in French and Latin).
- ISBN 978-0-544-12997-9. (Alligator mississippiensis, p. 170 + Plate 13 + photographs on pp. 166–167, 465).
- ISBN 0-307-13666-3. (Alligator mississippiensis, pp. 208–209).
External links
- Crocodilian Online Archived July 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
- Photo exhibit on alligators in Florida from State Archives of Florida
- Why the Gulf Coast needs more big alligators
- Alligator bellows and hisses Archived March 1, 2014, at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
- View the allMis1 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser.