Women and animal advocacy
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Women have played a central role in animal advocacy since the 19th century. The animal advocacy movement – embracing animal rights, animal welfare, and anti-vivisectionism – has been disproportionately initiated and led by women, particularly in the United Kingdom.[1] Women are more likely to support animal rights than men.[2][3] A 1996 study of adolescents by Linda Pifer suggested that factors that may partially explain this discrepancy include attitudes towards feminism and science, scientific literacy, and the presence of a greater emphasis on "nurturance or compassion" amongst women.[4] Although vegetarianism does not necessarily imply animal advocacy, a 1992 market research study conducted by the Yankelovich research organization concluded that "of the 12.4 million people [in the US] who call themselves vegetarian, 68% are female, while only 32% are male".[5]
History
Pre-1800s
In 1392 Eleanor of Arborea, Queen (Juighissa) and national heroine of Sardinia, under the jurisdiction conferred by the Carta de Logu became the first ruler in history to grant protection to hawk and falcon nests against illegal hunters. Eleonora's falcon (Falco eleonorae) was later named after her.[6][7][8]
Women and animals were often considered equally irrational and inferior in the past. When the British author Mary Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, British philosopher Thomas Taylor responded anonymously in the same year with A Vindication of the Rights of Brutes, in which he claimed that arguments for the oppression or liberation of women applied equally well to animals, intending it as a reductio ad absurdum of Wollstonecraft's position.[9]
1800s
Many of the major British animal advocacy groups founded in the late 1800s and early 1900s, all regarded as radical in their time, were founded by women, including the
In 1867 the American philanthropist
In 1875, Catherine Smithies founded the first Band of Mercy, which promoted teaching children kindness towards non-human animals and led to the Bands of Mercy movement.[15]
In 1877 Anna Sewell's Black Beauty, the first English novel to be written from the perspective of a non-human animal, spurred concern for the welfare of horses. Although the book is now considered a children's classic, Sewell originally wrote it for those who worked with horses. She said "a special aim was to induce kindness, sympathy, and an understanding treatment of horses".[16] In many respects the book can be read as a guide to horse husbandry, stable management and humane training practices for colts.[17] It is considered to have had an effect on reducing cruelty to horses; for example, the use of bearing reins, which are particularly painful for a horse, was one of the practices highlighted in the novel, and in the years after the book's release the reins became less popular and fell out of favor.[18][17]
In 1878-1879, responding to the moderate positions taken by the German animal protection organizations on animal experimentation, Marie Espérance von Schwartz and two men began to form a dedicated anti-vivisection movement in Germany. In 1879 the anti-vivisectionists clashed with moderate animal protectionists at the German Animal Protection Congress, leading von Schwartz and one of the men to found the International Society for Combat Against Scientific Torture of Animals.[19]
In 1880, the English feminist Anna Kingsford became one of the first English women to graduate in medicine, after studying for her degree in Paris, and the only student at the time to do so without having experimented on animals. She published The Perfect Way in Diet (1881), advocating vegetarianism, and was also vocal in her opposition to animal experiments.[20]
In 1883 Caroline Earle White founded the American Anti-Vivisection Society, which was the first anti-vivisection organization founded in the United States.[14]
In 1889 in England, the Plumage League was founded by
In 1896 the
British political scientist
1900s
The British
In 1927,
The
The first vegan society in the United States was founded in 1948 by Catherine Nimmo and Rubin Abramowitz in California, who distributed Donald Watson's newsletter.[37]
The earliest documented practice of
In 1951, the Animal Welfare Institute was founded by Christine Stevens.[39]
On November 22, 1954, the Humane Society of the United States was founded by Marcia Glaser, Helen Jones, and two men.[40]
Also in the United States, Velma Bronn Johnston initiated a massive letter-writing campaign by students to Senators and other Congress members, and on September 8, 1959, the campaign resulted in the federal legislature passing Public Law 86-234, which banned the poisoning of watering holes frequented by wild equids and the use of air and land vehicles in hunting and capturing free-roaming horses for sale and slaughter. This became known as the Wild Horse Annie Act.[41] Johnston was also known as Wild Horse Annie. However, passage of the Wild Horse Annie Act did not alleviate the concerns of free-roaming horse advocates, who continued to lobby for federal rather than state control over the disposition of free-roaming horses. Since most horses in the desert regions were recently descended from ranchers' horses, ownership of the free-roaming herds was contentious, and ranchers continued to use airplanes to gather them. Johnston continued her campaign, and in 1971, the 92nd United States Congress unanimously passed the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971.[42] It was signed into law by then-President Richard Nixon on December 15, 1971. The act prohibited capture, injury, or disturbance of free-roaming horses and burros.
In 1962 the Animal Welfare Board of India was founded by Rukmini Devi Arundale.
In 1964 the British author Ruth Harrison published Animal Machines, an influential critique of factory farming, and on October 10, 1965, the British novelist Brigid Brophy had an article, "The Rights of Animals", published in The Sunday Times.[43] Brophy wrote:
The relationship of
homo sapiens to the other animals is one of unremitting exploitation. We employ their work; we eat and wear them. We exploit them to serve our superstitions: whereas we used to sacrifice them to our gods and tear out their entrails in order to foresee the future, we now sacrifice them to science, and experiment on their entrail in the hope—or on the mere offchance—that we might thereby see a little more clearly into the present ... To us it seems incredible that the Greek philosophers should have scanned so deeply into right and wrong and yet never noticed the immorality of slavery. Perhaps 3000 years from now it will seem equally incredible that we do not notice the immorality of our own oppression of animals.[43]
British political scientist
In the mid-1960s, English former model
In 1973 Dr. Shirley McGreal founded the International Primate Protection League in Thailand.[51]
In 1980 the English-born British/American animal rights activist Ingrid Newkirk co-founded People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals.
Also in 1980 was the first Action for Life conference for animal rights, which was attended by a number of pioneers in the animal rights movement, including Ingrid Newkirk.
In 1981 Feminists for Animal Rights was founded in California; it became a nationwide organization in the following years and was active nationwide for over two decades, but is now defunct.[52] In the same year, Priscilla Cohn published Etica aplicada ("Applied Ethics"), written with José Ferrater Mora, containing the first essay on animal rights published in Spain.[53]
In 1984 Virginia McKenna OBE founded the Born Free Foundation together with her husband Bill Travers OBE and their son Will Travers OBE. The Born Free Foundation is a dynamic international wildlife charity. Born Free takes action worldwide to save lives, stop suffering and protect species in the wild.
A breakaway group from the
In 1986, Lorri Houston co-founded Farm Sanctuary, America's first shelter for farm animals.[51]
In 1990, the American author
In 1992 People for Animals (PFA), also known as People for Animals India, India's largest animal welfare organization, was founded by Maneka Gandhi, who later became its chairperson.[59][60][61]
In 1994
In 1994 Viva! was founded in the United Kingdom by Juliet Gellately. The organisation carries out undercover investigations of factory farms, as well as producing campaigns and resources on veganism.[62]
In 1998
2000s
In 2006 in the Netherlands,
In 2008, Brigitte Gothière co-founded L214, a French animal rights organization which spreads awareness of animal suffering in slaughterhouses using graphic footage.[63]
In 2015, Jo-Anne McArthur (We Animals) and Keri Cronin (Department of Visual Arts, Brock University), launched The Unbound Project, a multimedia and book project that celebrates the women who have been at the forefront of animal advocacy around the globe.
Women have also featured prominently in actions carried out in the name of the Animal Liberation Front and the Hunt Saboteurs Association.
See also
- List of animal rights advocates
- Human–animal bonding
References
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- ^ Pifer, Linda. (1996). "Exploring the Gender Gap in Young Adults' Attitudes about Animal Research". Society and Animals. 4:1. Pages 37–52.
- ^ "The gender gap: if you're a vegetarian, odds are you're a woman. Why?". Vegetarian Times. February 1, 2005. Retrieved October 27, 2007.
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- ^ Kathy, Mason (2002). "Out of fashion: Harriet Hemenway and the Audubon Society, 1896-1905". The Historian. 65 (1).
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Further reading
- The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory. (1990)
- Adams, Carol J. and Donovan, Josephine. The Feminist Care Tradition in Animal Ethics: A Reader. (2007)
- Donald, Diana (2019-10-23). Women against cruelty. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1-5261-1543-0.
- Donovan, Josephine. "Animal Rights and Feminist Theory," Signs, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Winter, 1990), pp. 350–375.
- Feminists for Animal Rights
- Guide to the Feminists for Animal Rights Publications and Other Materials 1991-1995
- Kean, Hilda (1995). "The 'Smooth Cool Men of Science': The Feminist and Socialist Response to Vivisection", History Workshop Journal, 40: 16–38.
- Kemmerer, Lisa A. (editor). Sister Species: Women, Animals and Social Justice. (2011)
- Lansbury, Coral. The Old Brown Dog: Women, Workers, and Vivisection in Edwardian England. (1985)