Women in Yemen
General Statistics | |
---|---|
Maternal mortality (per 100,000) | 164 (2017) |
Women in parliament | 1.0% (2019) |
Women over 25 with secondary education | 19.9% (2017) |
Women in labour force | 5.8% (2019) |
Gender Inequality Index[1] | |
Value | 0.820 (2021) |
Rank | 170th out of 191 |
Global Gender Gap Index[2] | |
Value | 0.492 (2021) |
Rank | 155th out of 156 |
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Women in society |
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Women in Yemen have historically been placed at a disadvantage due to their gender, with a highly patriarchal society.[3] Although the government of Yemen has made efforts that will improve the rights of women in
In 2017, Yemeni women do not hold many economic, social or cultural rights. While suffrage was gained in 1967 and constitutional and legal protection was extended to women during the first years of Yemen unity between 1990–1994, they continue to struggle "in exercising their full political and civil rights".[5] History shows that women have played major roles in Yemeni society. Some women of pre-Islamic and early Islamic Yemen held elite status in society. The Queen of Sheba, for example, "is a source of pride for the Yemeni nation".[5] In addition, Queen Arwa has been noted for her attention to infrastructure, which added to a documented time of prosperity under her rule.[5] Modern day women of Yemen, however, are subject to a society that reflects largely agrarian, tribal, and patriarchal traditions. This, combined with illiteracy and economic issues has led women to continuously be deprived of their rights as citizens of Yemen.
Due to the ongoing
Women's rights in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen: 1967–1990)
This section needs additional citations for verification. (July 2019) |
Following the eviction of British colonial forces in November 1967, the leadership of Yemen's revolutionary National Liberation Front (NLF) installed a progressive Marxist government based in Aden, the former seat of colonial power in South Yemen. At the outset of the post-colonial period, the NLF leadership recognized pervasive gender discrimination as a serious handicap which would invariably hinder the progressive development of an egalitarian society. In an attempt to rectify the situation, the 1970 constitution of the PDRY guaranteed that:
It shall work for the widest participation of Yemeni women in economic, social and political life and the raising of their educational, cultural, vocational, and technical capabilities. It shall struggle vigorously for the purpose of affirming and protecting the rights guaranteed to women by the constitution and the laws on the basis of parity with men.[7]
Women were also granted the right to vote immediately following independence from Great Britain in 1967. In practice however, women remained chronically underrepresented in the PDRY government. It quickly became apparent to the leadership of the revolutionary regime, particularly Abdul Fattah Ismail, that legislation alone would not be able to elevate the status of Yemen's women.
Nevertheless, these developments represented a remarkable step forward for women residing in South Yemen. In fact, these rights extended into the private sphere, in particular regarding the regulation of marriage. For example, the 1974 Family Law outlines marriage as "a contract between a man and a woman, equal in rights and responsibilities, made on the basis of mutual understanding and respect."[8] Helen Lackner points out that "Along with the Tunisian Family Code, this law is the most progressive to be found in any Arab state."[9]
While a stark contrast between Aden and the conservative countryside often dictated the pace of change, such laws provided the legal infrastructure necessary to promote a revolutionary reorganization of society in accordance with the fundamental principle of gender equality, and social egalitarianism more generally. Furthermore, the P.D.R.Y. attempted to mobilize women in rural areas through the creation of the General Union of Yemeni Women, which was responsible for protecting and promoting the interests of women.[10] The women's union provided literacy courses and vocational training, while in a broader sense setting an example for society that women can and "should be encouraged to participate fully and equally in society."[11]
Access to justice
The addition of Article 31 to the constitution, contradicts article 40 by stating that "Women are the sisters of men... they have
Many of the discriminatory policies restrict familial rights of women. Women in Yemen cannot marry a non-Yemeni without approval from both her family and the state.[5] Further, under the Nationality Law of 1990, Yemeni women cannot pass their citizenship onto their children unless the woman divorces her husband, her husband is found to be insane or her husband dies, in which case the children can gain citizenship when they turn 19. The children of Yemeni men married to foreigners, on the other hand, are ensured Yemeni citizenship.[5] Further, divorce and even testimony of women is not equal to that of Yemeni men. Yemeni men have the right to divorce their wives at any time without justification, a woman on the other hand must go through a process of litigation in which they justify their reason for nullifying the marriage contract.[5] Before the court, a woman is considered only half a person, that is it takes "the testimony of two women" to equal "the testimony of one man."[5] Additionally, women are prohibited from testifying in cases of adultery, slander, theft or sodomy by Article 45 (21) of the 1992 Evidence Law.[5]
Other laws that discriminate against women are: Personal Status Law (1992) and Penal Code Law (1994). The Personal Status Law contravenes parts of the Convention on Eliminating All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), by stating that women are required to provide sexual access to her husband, basically permitting rape within a marriage.[14] Likewise, provisions in the Penal Code increase the vulnerability of women to violence. Article 232 of the Penal Code allows for reduced and lenient sentences of men convicted of so-called "honour killing". Under Yemeni law murder is punishable by death, however the Penal Code imposes a maximum prison sentence of only one year in cases of "honour killings".
Gender-based violence
There are a number of forms of violence that women in Yemen are exposed to, and these include: physical and psychological abuse from family members, forced marriage, sexual harassment, forced pregnancy, rape, polygamy, health services deprivation and female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C). Forced marriage and FGM/C are considered part of culture and tradition, and therefore they are not viewed as a form of violence in Yemen. In fact, 94% of FGM/C is not done by certified medical doctors, due to ministerial decree issued by the Minister of Health that bans FGM/C in the official centers; as a result, FGM/C has been conducted in the homes.[15] FGM/C is done as a result of cultural practices, lack of knowledge of the risk connected with this harmful procedure, and law of prohibiting this behaviour.
Within Yemeni society, there is a strong preference for male children, as well as a high tolerance of violent behaviour towards females. Thus, female children are often disciplined and punished, if they challenge this behaviour, and attempt to defend themselves. These practices do not only take place inside the homes, but also in schools, social institutes and workplaces. National and local media in fact, often encourage and reinforce the tendency for such discriminating acts and behaviour.
The most vulnerable group of women exposed to violence in Yemen, is marginalized, poor and rural women. While conditions of poverty tend to intensify forms of incidences[
Discriminatory laws
Women in Yemen are also subjected to violence through the institutionalization of discriminatory laws. Article 42 of the Crimes and Punishment Law No 12 (1994) amounts a woman's blood money (
Amendments to other laws in the late 1990s, further lowered the status of Yemeni women. For example, in the 1992 version of the Personal Status Law, the minimum age for marriage was 15, however, in the 1998 amendment, the wording was replaced with general terms, which ultimately amounted to the legalisation of marriage contracts for minors. Under Article No. 15 of the current Personal Status law, it is stated that marriage to a "little girl" is valid, unless she is not ready for sex. What the article is conveying, is that girls under 15, may be forced to marry, if they are ready to engage in sexual relations. On that, the law disregards the fact that, despite the physical and psychological capability to engage in sexual relations, decision to do so should be a personal one, and should depend on the wishes of each individual woman.[18] Personal Status Law also enables marital rape and domestic violence. For example, Article 40 as revised in 1998, provides that a woman must be obedient to her husband. In doing so, Article 40 does not allow a woman to leave her home without her husband's permission. The husband is also allowed to have sexual relations with his wife, whenever he pleases, and she should allow that in return.[19]
Human rights
The international community has recognized that violence against women is a violation of women's human rights, their
Allegations of violence and sexual abuse in Yemen have been reported by
Political rights
Women in Yemen have always had limited participation in society, as men are considered the primary decision makers both inside and outside the household.
Despite the achievements made in 2014 by the NDC, women's political participation has been suspended as a result of the current ongoing conflict.[27] Amat al-Aleem al-Asbahi, a Taiz female literacy activist, was assassinated on 25 December 2016.[28]
Social and cultural rights
Yemen is a society with the cultural attitude, that women have a low status in the family, as well as in the community. A man is allowed to marry up to four wives as long as he has the financial means, however a woman is not even entitled to enter marriage under her own free will, as she needs the approval and agreement of a male guardian.[29] In case of divorce, children can be removed from the mother's care, while the father does not face such risks of losing his children. A woman is also not allowed to deny visitation rights for the father, while the father is allowed to do so under Article 145 of the Personal Status Act.
Health and
Education rights
Men and women do not have the same rights for
Economic rights
In the World Economic Forum's 2014 Gender Gap Report, out of the 142 countries included in the report, Yemen ranked last, and has continued to do so since 2007. As Elhum Haghight-Sordellini points out, growth of the economy "can create a powerful need to bring women into the
While Yemeni women are not prohibited to work, there are other barriers that make it difficult for them to seek employment. Firstly, as mentioned above, women lack in education. Secondly, the Personal Status Law does not allow a woman to leave the house, unless with permission from her husband, and thirdly, culturally, Yemeni women are expected to stay home and take care of the children, so that denies them access to employment opportunities. For these reasons and more, in 2013 the World Economic Forum reported that the female unemployment was 41%,compared to the men's which was only 12%.[43]
Nobel Prize
Yemeni women's rights activist
Industry
See also
- Women in Islam
- Women in Arab societies
- Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)
- Education in Yemen
References
- ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORTS. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
- ^ "Global Gender Gap Report 2021" (PDF). World Economic Forum. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
- ^ Lackner, Helen. P.D.R.Yemen: Outpost of Socialist Development in Arabia, pp. 114.
- ^ "Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women" (PDF). United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 13 March 2007. Retrieved 2013-01-27.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Basha, Amal. “Yemen.” In Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Citizenship and Justice, edited by Sameena Nazir and Leigh Tomppert. Oxford: Freedom House, 2005.
- ^ Two year conflict in Yemen's takes heaviest toll on women and girls
- ^ PDRY Constitution, 1970, Article 67
- doi:10.4000/cy.2039.
- ^ Lackner, Helen. P.D.R. Yemen: An Outpost of Socialist Development in Arabia pp. 116.
- ^ Lackner, Helen. P.D.R. Yemen: An Outpost of Socialist Development in Arabia p. 117
- ^ Lackner, Helen. P.D.R. Yemen: An Outpost of Socialist Development in Arabia p. 118
- ^ a b Constitution of the Republic of Yemen, 1994. http://www.al-bab.com/yemen/gov/con94.htm, June 23, 2007.
- ^ Antelava, Natalia (2011-04-21). "Yemen women centre stage of revolution". Retrieved 2019-08-23.
- ^ CARE Rapid Gender Analysis: Yemen, at2
- ^ Sixth National Report on the Implementation of CEDAW, WNC 2006
- ^ "How Yemen's war 'casts a shadow' over women and girls". France 24. 9 March 2022. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
- ^ Yemen: Republican Decree, By Law No. 12 for 1994, Concerning Crimes and Penalties, Article 42
- ^ Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against women
- ^ Human Rights Watch Submission to the CEDAW Committee on Yemen's Periodic Report, 62nd session, at pg. 6
- ^ Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
- ^ of Public Health and Population and Central Statistical Organization (2015) National Health and Demographic Survey 2013, Sana’a, Yemen, July 2015
- ^ a b Abdul Hadi Jadallah (2015) Conflict Analysis of the Republic of Yemen for United National Country Team, June 2015
- ^ USAID (2014) Yemen Gender Assessment, January 2014
- ^ IPTI (2016) Inclusive Peace & Transition Initiative, Making Women Count – Not Just Counting Women, Graduate Institute Geneva, 29 Mar 2016
- ^ Foreign Affairs Council Conclusions on Yemen," February 2014, Yemen Embassy
- ^ Conflict Assessment of the Republic of Yemen
- ^ From the Ground up: Gender and Conflict Analysis in Yemen, at 13
- ISBN 978-1-61069-712-5.
- ^ Human Rights Watch Submission to the CEDAW Committee on Yemen's Periodic Report, 62nd session, at pg. 2
- ^ (2015a) Rapid Gender Analysis of Yemen, June 2015
- ^ Broadwin, Liz (2010-04-16). "The Syrian Women Observatory Stands in solidarity with "Illham al Assi", a Victim of Child Rape Condoned Under the Guise of Marriage". Syrian Women Observatory. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
- ^ al Qadhi, Mohammed (April 9, 2010). "Dead Yemeni bride, 13, 'a victim of childhood abuse'". The National.
- ^ "Yemeni child bride dies of bleeding after intercourse". AFP. April 8, 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
- ^ Constitution of the Republic of Yemen, Article 54
- ^ UNICEF Annual Report-Yemen
- ^ Situation Analysis of Children in Yemen 2014, at 25
- ^ Human Rights Watch, “How Come You Allow Little Girls to Get Married?”: Child Marriage in Yemen, December 8, 2011
- ^ gender-gap-report-2013/#section=country-profiles-yemen, World Economic Forum, “Global Gender Gap Report 2013: Country Profile: Yemen,” 2013
- ^ The Global Gender Gab Report
- ^ "Middle East :: Yemen — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2019-08-23.
- ^ Haghighat-Sordellini, Elhum. Women In The Middle East And North Africa: Change and Continuity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
- ^ "Republic of Yemen." United Nations Development Program. http://www.undp.org.ye/y-profile.php, March 29, 2011.
- ^ Rights Watch Submission to the CEDAW Committee on Yemen's Periodic Report, 62nd session
- ^ Sadiki, Larbi. "A Nobel for the Arab Spring". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2019-08-23.
- ^ Afrah Nasser, Special to (17 November 2011). "Yemen is experiencing two revolutions, says female activist". CNN. Retrieved 2019-08-23.
- ^ "Yemen: The woman saving a crumbling heritage". BBC News. 2021-11-28. Retrieved 2021-12-02.