Women in law
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (December 2015) |
Part of a series on |
Women in society |
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Women in law describes the role played by women in the
Representation and working conditions
United States
The
In 2012, women held 27.1% of all federal and state judge positions, while men held 73.9%.[1] In 2014, three of nine Supreme Court justices were women (33%), 33% of Circuit Court of Appeals judges and 24% of federal court judges.[1] Women held 27% of all state judge positions.
During the 2012–2013 academic year, women made up 47% of Juris Doctor (JD) students, people of color made up 25.8% of JD students.[2] In 2009 in the US, women made up 20.6% of law school deans.[2] In the US in 2014, 32.9% of all lawyers were women.[2] 44.8% of law firm associates were women in 2013.[2] In the 50 "best law firms for women" in the US, "19% of the equity partners were women, 29% of the nonequity partners were women, and 42% of... counsels were women.[2]
A survey[when?] indicates that 96% of US law firms state that their highest paid partner is male.[2] "Only 24.1% of all federal judgeships were held by women, and only 27.5% of state judgeships were held by women."[2] Women lawyers' salaries were "83% of men lawyers' salaries in 2014".[2]
In the US, while women made up 34% of the legal profession in 2014, women are underrepresented in senior positions in all areas of the profession. There has been an increase in women in the law field from the 1970s to 2010, but the increase has been seen in entry level jobs. In 2020, 37% of lawyers were female.
Women of color
The National Association for Law Placement and a recent survey of diversity at 232 law firms show that women of color and black women specifically continue to be significantly underrepresented, making up 8.57% and 1.73% of all attorneys, respectively. Law firms are overwhelmingly white and male, despite efforts to recruit people of color from prestigious institutions.[4]
Representation
The National Association for Law Placement (NALP) found that every year since 2009 there has been a decline of African-American associates—“from 4.66 percent to 3.95 percent."[5] According to a November 2015 NALP press release, at just 2.55 percent of partners, minority women remain the most underrepresented group at partnership level.[5]
Treatment
In a 2008 survey, by the National Association of Women Lawyers (NAWL), the report found that women of color view their workplace as racially/ethnically stereotypical and exclusionary as a result. Women of color also felt that law firms were not taking enough action to increase diversity and when actions were taken they were not executed effectively.[6] The America Bar Association Commission on Women in the Profession released a report which was a culmination of a study meant to address the decline of women of color in the legal profession. In the study, women of color were given the opportunity to express concern over the negative effects they faced in the workplace and how those effects carried into their personal life. Women of color reported feelings of exclusion, isolation, and as though they were receiving more unwanted critical attention than their counterparts.[7]
The American Bar Association Commission on Women in the Profession when looking at reports on the treatment of women of color in the legal profession were disappointed with the patterns they noticed which led the American Bar Association Commission on Women in the Profession to undertake their own research in 2003, the Women of Color Research Initiative. In both law firms and corporate legal departments the findings were that women of color "receive less compensation than men and white women; are denied equal access to significant assignments, mentoring and sponsorship opportunities; receive fewer promotions; and have the highest rate of attrition."[5] There is a ripple effect within the treatment of women of color. Women of color are put at a disadvantage early on making "the ultimate result that women of color miss opportunities to get better work assignments, more client contact, and more billable hours."[7] Women of color's treatment within the legal profession and their feelings about this treatment have affected the retention of women of color in the legal profession. Women of color leave law firms at a high rate, "nearly 75 percent leave by their fifth year, and nearly 86 percent leave before their seventh year."[6]
Strategy
ABA's Commission on Women in the Profession released a report aimed at identifying challenges faced by women of color in law firms and found that “to overcome systemic discrimination against women of color, firms must recognize that the experiences of women of color are different from those of other groups; implementing changes to reflect this difference is necessary for retention. Firms and corporations must initiate active mentorship programs and encourage organization-wide discussions about issues concerning women of color, and constructive feedback is required.”[7] After the release of this report, several law firms have attempted the recommendations set forth by the report. Law firms began initiatives that focus on recruiting women of color as well as ensuring the retention of women of color as well. Recruiting of minority women has been increased through law firms finding summer associates by doing interviews “at the Southeast Minority Career Fair, MCCA/Vault Career Fair, Specialty Bar Association, Lavender Law Career Fair, and at schools such as Howard University School of Law and North Carolina Central School of Law.”[7]
Canada
In 2010 in Canada, "there were 22,261 practicing women lawyers and 37,617 practicing men lawyers."[2] Canadian studies show that "50% of lawyers said they felt their firms were doing "poorly" or "very poorly" in their provision of flexible work arrangements."[2] More women lawyers found it "difficult to manage the demands of work and personal/family life" than men, with 75% of women reporting these challenges versus 66% of men associates.[2] A 2010 report about Ontario lawyers from 1971 to 2006 indicates that "...racialized women accounted for 16% of all lawyers under 30, compared to 5% of lawyers 30 and older in 2006. Visible minority lawyers accounted for 11.5% of all lawyers in 2006. Aboriginal lawyers accounted for 1.0% of all lawyers in 2006.[2]
As well, "...racialized women accounted for 16% of all lawyers under 30" in 2006 in Ontario and women Aboriginal lawyers accounted for 1%.[2]
Middle East and North Africa (MENA)
In 2010, a study found the estimated proportion of female lawyers in 210 countries.[8] The study included Algeria (28%), Bahrain (27%), Egypt (26%), Iran (30%), Iraq (28%), Israel (43%), Jordan (33%), Kuwait (30%), Lebanon (29%), Morocco (22%), Oman (25%), Palestine (26%), Qatar (29%), Saudi Arabia (31%), Syria (25%), Turkey (35%), United Arab Emirates (28%), and Yemen (22%).[8]
Lawyers and law professors in the Middle East believe the beginning of the 21st century allowed for an increased interest in the field of law, whereas some researchers believe part of the increase is due to the 2011 Arab Spring revolts.[9] Researcher Rania Maktabi noticed that compared to other nations in MENA, women's issues in Morocco, Lebanon and Kuwait have been addressed less violently and also have the highest rates of female employment in the region.[9] Female lawyers in these three nations tackle the patriarchal legal system by introducing reforms in family law, criminal law, and nationality law.[10] Maktabi argues in her research that the increased number of female lawyers involved in women's legal issues in Morocco, Lebanon, and Kuwait has a direct impact on the strengthening of women's rights in those states.[10]
Organizations
Center for Women in Law (US)
The
National Women's Law Center (US)
The
Women's Legal Education and Action Fund (Canada)
Women in Law and Litigation (India)
Feminist perspectives
The
Notable scholars include:
- Ruth Bader Ginsburg
- Catharine MacKinnon
- Martha Fineman
- Mari Matsuda
Feminist philosophy of law
Feminist
History
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the first woman to pass a law degree was Eliza Orme, who graduated from University College London in 1888. She was not allowed to qualify to practice as either a solicitor or a barrister. It was not until 1919, with the passage of the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919 that women could enter the legal profession. This had been challenged in 1914 in a case, Bebb v Law Society, in which the Court of Appeal found that women did not fall within the legal definition of "persons" and so could not become lawyers. The 1919 act also allowed women to serve on juries for the first time.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, along with several other Gulf countries, has decided to put an emphasis on promoting jobs rather than oil production to help their economy.[21] The Saudi government took initiatives to boost female participation in the labor force.[21] Historically, women were not encouraged to participate in professional academic concentrations, including law.[21]
However, in 2004, the government allowed law degree programs to be studied in women's universities.[22] Four years later, the first female students graduated with law degrees, but could not practice in courts, which consisted of an all-male judiciary.[22] Women with law degrees could only work as "legal consultants," which barred them from representing clients.[23]
In 2011, amongst the political uprising climate in the Middle East, female lawyers pushed a social media campaign called ''I am a female lawyer."[23] The campaign brought attention to the discriminatory treatment of women who were not allowed to practice law in their own countries, despite their degrees.[23] In October 2012, King Abdullah announced his acceptance of a petition by a group of female law graduates.[24] The 3,000 signatures permitted the registration by women for law licenses.[24] However, the Ministry of Justice acted otherwise and refused to process registration applications from female law graduates.[24]
In April 2013, the Justice Ministry allowed a King Abdulaziz University graduate from Jeddah, Arwa al-Hujaili, to become the first female legal trainee in Saudi Arabia.[23] As a trainee, she was allowed to practice law, similar to a "legal consultant," but given a full license after three years of apprenticeship.
In October 2013, a new policy passed allowing all women to seek a legal license to practice law after receiving a university degree in law and three years of apprenticeship.[25]
On October 6, 2013, Bayan Mahmoud Al-Zahran received the first license from the Justice Ministry, thus becoming the first licensed female lawyer in Saudi Arabia.[26] Zahran began her legal career with dedication to domestic violence issues, then focused on criminal law.[26] The following month, Zahran represented a client, the first time for a Saudi woman, amongst the General Court in Jidda.[27] In January 2014, Zahran opened the first female law firm.[27] Her firm focuses on women's issues.[27]
As of November 2015, thousands of Saudi women have degrees in law, but only sixty-seven are licensed to practice.[22] In 2017, Saudi female students attended universities at a gross enrollment rate higher than Saudi male students, at 97.5% and 41.6%, respectively.[21]
Notable individuals
United States
- Mary Bartelme (1866 – 1954) was called by The New York Times in 1913, "America's only woman judge".[28] She was internationally known for her pioneering work in the creation and administration of juvenile court.[29] She also served as vice chair of the suffragist National Woman's Party.[30]
- California Supreme Court, becoming the first woman to sit on that court.[32]
- Ohio Supreme Court. She was appointed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuitin 1934, making her one of the first women federal judges.
- Ph.D. in the United States, and the first woman to receive a law degree from the University of Pennsylvania Law School. She was the first African-American woman to practice law in Pennsylvania.[34]She was the first African-American woman appointed as Assistant City Solicitor for the City of Philadelphia.
- District of Columbiagovernment in 1939.
- District Court Judge. She has remained largely unrecognized. She was the first black woman admitted to Columbia Law Schoolin 1943 at the age of twenty-four. In 1947, Alexander became the first black woman to practice law in North Carolina. In 1968, Alexander became the first black judge elected in North Carolina and only the second black woman to be elected as a judge in the United States.
- 's commission on women.
- Wayne State Law School and received her J.D. there, and received a PhD. from Wolfson College, University of Cambridge in England. A distinguished legal scholar, she has published widely on reproductive rights, constitutional law, legal history, comparative civil liberties, and bioethics.
- Crain's New York Business named Addison one of the "50 Most Powerful Women in New York" in 2015.[40] She is a founder and Past President of the Center for Women in Law, and co-chaired the New York State Bar Association’s Task Force on the Future of the Legal Profession.[41]
- Harvard Law.
Canada
At the end of the nineteenth century, Canadian women were barred from professional or jury participation in the legal system–women could not become lawyers, magistrates, judges, jurors, voters or legislators.
Some Canadian lawyers have become notable for their achievements in politics, including Kim Campbell, Mélanie Joly, Anne McLellan, Rachel Notley and Jody Wilson-Raybould.
Notable Canadian legal professionals include:
- International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda. She made history with the indictment of a sitting head of state, Yugoslavian president Slobodan Milošević, as well as the first prosecution of sexual assault under the articles of crimes against humanity.
- first, and to date, only female prime minister of Canada. She earned an LL.B. from the University of British Columbiain 1983.
- Catherine Fraser (born 1947) was appointed as Chief Justice of Alberta and Chief Justice of Northwest Territories in 1992. She was named as the Chief Justice of the Nunavut Court of Appeal on March 24, 1999.
- Jennifer Stoddart (born 1949) was the sixth Privacy Commissioner of Canada. In 1980 she received a licence in civil law from McGill University. As a lawyer she worked to modernize regulations and remove barriers to employment based on gender or cultural differences. She headed the Quebec Commission on Access to Information and held senior positions at the Quebec Human Rights and Youth Rights Commission, the Canadian Human Rights Commission and the Canadian Advisory Council on the Status of Women.[46]
- Martha Hall Findlay (born 1959) is a Canadian businesswoman, entrepreneur, lawyer and politician from Toronto, Ontario. She was elected to the House of Commons of Canada as the Liberal Party of Canada's candidate in a Toronto riding.
- Beth Symes CM [47] Queen's University alumna[48] is a Canadian lawyer[49] who fought the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA, formerly known as Revenue Canada) all the way to the Supreme Court of Canada in order to deduct childcare expenses she incurred to earn income as a partner in her law firm. Symes practised law full-time as a partner in a law firm from 1982 to 1985.[50] During that period she employed a nanny to care for her children, and deducted the wages paid to the nanny as a business expense on her personal income tax return. Revenue Canada initially allowed these deductions, but later disallowed them. Symes objected to the re-assessment, but CRA denied the objection. Symes appealed to the Federal Court, which ruled that the expenses were valid and legitimate business expenses. The case was appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada (SCC), which ruled in Symes v. Canada [1993] that her childcare expenses were not deductible as business expenses.
- Marie Henein is a Canadian lawyer. She is a partner of Henein Hutchison LLP, a law firm in Toronto. Henein has developed a reputation in Toronto as one of the most "respected and feared criminal lawyers in the country."[45] The National Post called her the "most high profile criminal defence lawyer in the country."[51] In 2011, Canadian Lawyer magazine named her one of the "Top 25 Most Influential" saying she was "one of the most sought-after criminal lawyers in the country" and "a key go-to lawyer for high-profile accused in Toronto."[52]
- chancellor of Dalhousie University[53] effective May 25.[54] She was a professor of law at the University of New Brunswick and the University of Alberta Faculty of Law where she served at various times as associate dean and dean. In 2009, McLellan was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canadafor her service as a politician and law professor, and for her contributions as a community volunteer.
- Rachel Notley (born 1964) is a Canadian politician and the 17th and current premier of Alberta, since 2015. Notley's career before politics focused on labour law, with a specialty in workers' compensation advocacy and workplace health and safety issues.
- Mélanie Joly PC MP (born 1979) is a Canadian lawyer, public relations expert, and politician. She is a Liberal member of the House of Commons of Canada representing Ahuntsic-Cartierville and also serves as the Minister of Canadian Heritage in the Cabinet, headed by Justin Trudeau.
- University of British Columbia Faculty of Law.
United Kingdom
This section of a biography of a living person does not include any references or sources. (September 2020) |
- Brenda Hale, Baroness Hale of Richmond was the first, and only, Lord Justice of Appeal in Ordinary, and following the creation of the new Supreme Court, she became the first woman to serve as a Justice of the Supreme Court. In 2017, she was appointed as the President of the Supreme Court. She was also the first woman to be appointed to the Law Commission.
- Elizabeth Butler-Sloss, Baroness Butler-Sloss was the first woman to be appointed to the Court of Appeal as a Lord Justice of Appeal.
- Ivy Williams was the first woman to be called to the bar, and the first woman to teach law at a British university.
- Carrie Morrison was the first woman solicitor in the United Kingdom.
- Helena Normanton was the first woman to become a barrister in the United Kingdom.
- Eliza Orme was the first woman to graduate with a law degree, in 1888. Women were not allowed to enter the legal profession until 1919 with the passage of the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919.
Middle East and North Africa
- Nechama Pohatchevsky was the first female judge in Mandatory Palestine (1919).
- Suat Hilmi Berk was the first female judge in Turkey (1925).
- Süreyya Ağaoğlu was the first female lawyer in Turkey (1927).
- Freda Slutzkin was the first female lawyer in Mandatory Palestine (1930).
- Rosa Ginossar was the first female lawyer in Israel (1930).
- Nina Trad was the first female lawyer in Lebanon (1932).
- Naima Ilyas al-Ayyubi was the first female lawyer in Egypt (1933).
- Emily Bisharat was the first female lawyer in Jordan.
- Zakia Hakki was the first female judge in Iraq (1959).
- Shirin Ebadi was the first female judge in Iran (1969).
- Suad al-Jassim was the first female lawyer in Kuwait (1973).
- Lulwa Al Awadhi and Haya Rashed Al-Khalifa were the first female lawyers in Bahrain (1979).
- Kamilia al Busaidy was the first female registered lawyer in Oman (1997).
- Haifa al-Bakr was the first female lawyer in Qatar (2000)
- Sheikha Maha Mansour al-Thani was the first female judge in Qatar (2010).
- Arwa al-Hujaili was the first female legal trainee in Saudi Arabia (2013).
- Bayan Mahmoud Al-Zahran was the first female licensed lawyer in Saudi Arabia (2013).
- Fatima Abdullah Al-Mal became the first female criminal judge in Qatar (2015)[55]
Pakistan
- Asma Jahangir (1952-2018) was a human rights defender and leading lawyer in human rights litigation in Pakistan who served in different capacities. She was the first woman elected to serve as the president of the Supreme Court Bar Association (2010-2011),[56] and was a member of the Government of Pakistan's Commission of Inquiry for Women (1994-1997). She co-founded and chaired the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, and served as the Director of AGHS Legal Aid Cell which undertakes legal research, provides free legal assistance and lobbies for legal reforms. She led movements for the respect of human rights, restoration of democracy, and independence of judiciary in Pakistan.[57] She was imprisoned and put under house arrest for being a leader of civil rights movements during the military regime led by General Zia-ul-Haq and General Pervez Musharraf in 1983 and 2007 respectively. She assumed responsibilities as Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions (1998-2004),[58] and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief (2004-2010),[59] and former UN Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran (2016-2018).[60] She served as an independent expert in the investigation on human rights violations in Sri Lanka; a member of International Fact-Finding Mission on Israeli settlements in the Palestine. She was awarded numerous national and international awards including the Hilal-i-Imtiaz,[61] Sitara-i-Imtiaz, whereas the UN Human Rights Prize[62] and the Nishan-e-Imtiaz.[63]
- Hina Jilani is a leading human rights defender and an advocate of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. She is the Chairperson at the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan. Along with her sister, she co-founded Pakistan’s first-ever all-female law firm in 1981 which engaged in providing legal aid in cases involving violations of human rights of women, children, religious minorities and prisoners, and prepared bills for reforms in national laws in conformity with human rights standards. She co-founded Women's Action Forum, a pressure group campaigning against discriminatory laws against women. She co-founded Dastak in Lahore which provides shelter, legal and support services to women victims of violence, and carries out capacity building and advocacy initiatives.[64] She served as Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the situation of Human Rights Defenders, 2000-2008.[65] In 2006, she was appointed to the UN International Fact-Finding Commission on Darfur. In 2013, she joined “The Elders,” a group of statespeople, peace builders, and human rights activists brought together by Nelson Mandela. She is also a member of the Eminent Jurists Panel on Terrorism, Counter-terrorism and Human Rights. In recognition of her efforts in the field of human rights, she was awarded the Human Rights Award by the Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, and Ginetta Sagan Award by the Amnesty International,[66] and the Stockholm Human Rights Award[67] by the Swedish Bar Association, the International Bar Association and the International Legal Assistance Consortium.
- Justice (Retd.) Tahira Safdar is a jurist who served as the Chief Justice of Balochistan High Court, 2018-2019.[68] She holds a unique position of being appointed as the first female civil judge in Balochistan in 1982, and the first female chief justice of any court in the history of Pakistan.[69]
- Justice (Retd.) Nasira Javed Iqbal is a jurist who served as the advocate for Supreme Court of Pakistan, and as a judge at the Lahore High Court (1994-2002). She is one of the first five women lawyers making it to a coveted post as Judge at High Court. She served as the president at the Lahore High Court Bar Association (2009-2010) and as a member at the Supreme Court Bar Association of Pakistan. She served as a member of the Law & Justice Commission of Pakistan, and the Commission on Inquiry on Enforced Disappearance (2010). She has had the honor of representing Pakistan's Delegation at the UN Human Rights Commission in Geneva, 1995. She has been teaching law at University of Central Punjab,[70] Lahore, and is running a school for the disadvantaged children. She is a member of Pakistan Women Lawyers’ Association, and associated with several organizations as a member including; Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, and Peoples Commission for Minorities Rights. She was awarded with the Sitara-i-Imtiaz[71] in recognition to her public services[72] for the judicial system.
- Justice (Retd.) Majida Rizvi is a jurist, and currently serving as the Chairperson of Sindh Human Rights Commission.[73] She has served as the Chairperson of the National Commission on the Status of Women, 2002-2005,[74] and as the attorney for the Supreme Court of Pakistan, and as a judge at the Sindh High Court, 1994-1999.[75] She holds a unique position of serving as the first woman judge of a High Court in Pakistan. She has been teaching at Hamdard School of Law, and is the trustee of a shelter home ‘Panah’ in Karachi[76] which provides services for the protection and rehabilitation of distressed women and children seeking solace.[77] She is the one who dared to challenge the discriminatory Hudood laws by declaring them against Islam in 2003.She has been raising voice against gender-based discrimination and violence, and has been making efforts to educate women regarding their legal rights. She was nominated for Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. She was awarded the human rights defenders award by the government of Pakistan in 2012.
- Sarah Belal is a barrister and the Founder and Executive Director of the Justice Project Pakistan which provides pro bono legal representation to the most vulnerable prisoners on death row. Her organization helped secure the release of 42 Pakistani detainees from Bagram in Afghanistan,[78] and secured stays of executions of several death row prisoners.[79] She is a strong advocate for lifting the moratorium on the death penalty in Pakistan.[80] She is the recipient of the Franco-German Human Rights Prize,[81] and the National Human Rights Award by the Government of Pakistan.
- Maliha Zia Lari is a lawyer and a trainer. She is the Associate Director at the Legal Aid Society.[82] She has been engaged in analyzing laws relating to gender-based violence,[83] and has contributed to the drafting several laws to deal with issues such as; domestic violence, Hindu Marriage Act, etc. She has been involved in providing training to the police officers and judges at the Judicial Academies in Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Islamabad.
- Jalila Haider is a human rights attorney that provides pro-bono legal services to poverty-affected women. She is the first woman lawyer from the Hazara community, an ethnic minority group in Balochistan.[84] She is also a political activist associated with Awami Workers Party and Women Democratic Front, and the Pashtun Tahafuz Movement.[85] She is the founder of the ‘We the Humans-Pakistan, which works for the socio-economic uplift of local communities, and strengthening the capacity of vulnerable women. She is vocal against human rights violations including enforced disappearances, target killing of Baloch and Pashtuns political workers, and ethnic cleansing of the Hazaras. She was selected in the ‘News Women Power 50, and the BBC's 100 Women,[86] and as an International Woman of Courage by the US Secretary of State, Michael R. Pompeo and First Lady of USA, Melania Trump.[87] She is a recipient of Hum TV Women Leaders Award 2020, and Front Line Heroes Award.[88]
- Asma Hamid is a lawyer of the Supreme Court, and the Head of Litigation at Asma Hamid Associates. She has provided advice to the Government of Punjab on an extensive range of policy matters including energy, education, health, criminal matters, prosecution reforms, agricultural laws reforms, and service matters. She has the unique distinction of being the first woman to hold the post of Advocate General for Punjab[89] in Pakistan’s history.
- Nighat Dad is a lawyer, and the Founder and Executive Director of the Digital Rights Foundation which engages in research, capacity building, and policy advocacy to strengthen protections for human rights defenders against cyber-harassment and surveillance. She engages in analyzing laws, policies, and rules relating to online freedom, and advocates for the right to privacy and freedom of expression without being threatened, and raises a voice against censorship and surveillance.[90] She has been included as a member of Facebook's Supreme Court to oversee decisions regarding content published on the social media network.[91] She is Time Magazine’s next-generation leader for 2015, and has won[92] the Atlantic Council Freedom Award[93] along with the prestigious Tulip Award in 2016.[94]
- Nida Usman Chaudhary is a lawyer, and the Founder of Lahore Education and Research Network (LEARN) and Women in Law Initiative Pakistan.[95] She is serving as the Chairperson of the Gender Equality and Diversity Committee of the Lahore High Court Bar Association.[96] She has initiated a project for increasing women’s representation in law between the Federal Ministry of Law and Justice, Group Development Pakistan, and Women in Law Initiative Pakistan,[97] which is sponsored mainly by the Australian High Commission and co-sponsored by the British High Commission.[98]
- Sana Khurshid is a lawyer and an advocate for disability rights. She raises a voice for developing disability-friendly buildings to make accessibility and mobility of persons with disabilities possible.[99] She advocates for creating better opportunities for employment without discrimination so that persons with disabilities could lead their dignified lives independently.[100] She is currently the Spine Ambassador for the Spinal Centre at Ghurki Trust Hospital in Lahore.
See also
- Black women in American law
- First women lawyers in the United States
- List of first women lawyers by nationality[International]
- Timeline of women lawyers
- Timeline of women lawyers in the United States
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Dataset
- Women on High Courts – a dataset on female judges on constitutional courts and supreme courts worldwide.
Further reading
- Bartlett, K., 1990. "Feminist Legal Methods," Harvard Law Review, 1039(4): 829–888.
- Bartlett, K. and R. Kennedy (eds.), 1991. Feminist Legal Theory, Boulder: Westview Press.
- Chamallas, M., 2003. Introduction to Feminist Legal Theory, 2d edition, Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Law & Business.
- Frug, M.J., 1992. "Sexual Equality and Sexual Difference in American Law," New England Law Review, 26: 665–682.
- Gould, C., 2003. "Women's Human Rights & the U.S. Constitution," in S. Schwarwenbach and P. Smith (eds.), *Women and the United States Constitution, New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 197–219.
- MacKinnon, C., 2006. Are Women Human?, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
- Olsen, F. (ed.), 1995. Feminist Legal Theory, New York: New York University Press.
- Manji (eds.), International Law: Modern Feminist Approaches, Oxford and Portland, OR: Hart Publishing.
- Rackley, E., and Auchmuty, R., 2018. Women's Legal Landmarks: Celebrating the history of women and law in the UK and Ireland, New York and London: Hart Publishing.
- Scales, A., 2006. Legal Feminism: Activism, Lawyering and Legal Theory, New York: New York University Press.
- Schwarzenbach, S. and P. Smith (eds.), 2003. Women & the United States Constitution, New York: Columbia University Press.
- Sen, A., 1995. "Gender Inequality & Theories of Justice," in M. Nussbaum and J. Glover (eds.) 1995, pp. 259–273.
- Smith, P., 2005. "Four Themes in Feminist Legal Theory: Difference, Dominance, Domesticity & Denial," in M. Golding and W. Edmundson, Philosophy of Law & Legal Theory, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 90–104.
- –– (ed.), 1993. Feminist Jurisprudence, New York: Oxford University Press.
- Stark, B., 2004. "Women, Globalization, & Law," Pace International Law Review, 16: 333–356.
- Maria C. Escobar-Lemmon, Valerie J. Hoekstra, Alice J. Kang, and Miki Caul Kittilson. 2021. "Breaking the Judicial Glass Ceiling: The Appointment of Women to High Courts Worldwide." Journal of Politics.