Armand Hammer
Armand Hammer | |
---|---|
Born | New York City, U.S. | May 21, 1898
Died | December 10, 1990 Los Angeles, California, U.S. | (aged 92)
Alma mater | Columbia University (B.A., 1919; M.D., 1921) |
Occupation | Business magnate |
Spouses | Olga Vadina von Root (m. 1927; div. 1943)Angela Carey Zevely (div. 1954)Frances Barrett Tolman
(m. 1956; died 1989) |
Children | Julian Armand Hammer |
Relatives |
|
Armand Hammer (May 21, 1898[1]: 16 – December 10, 1990) was an American business manager and owner. He spent decades with Occidental Petroleum in the mid 20th century.[2] Called "Lenin's chosen capitalist" by the press, he was also known for his art collection and his close ties to the Soviet Union.[3][4][5]
Hammer's business interests around the world and his "citizen diplomacy" helped him cultivate a wide network of friends and associates.
Early life
Armand Hammer was born in
Following the
Hammer originally said that his father had named him after a character, Armand Duval, in
Father's imprisonment
Due to his socialist and communist activities, Hammer's father Julius had been put under federal surveillance.
While most historians (such as
Allied Drug
After the Soviet Russian Government Bureau closed, Allied Drug's smuggling activities between the United States and Soviet Union ceased, which caused Allied Drug to gain enormous debts from storing large amounts of unpaid items in warehouses in New York and Riga.[13] In March 1921, Ludwig Martens sent a letter from Moscow through the Soviet mission in Tallinn to Julius Hammer, who was imprisoned at Sing Sing until 1924, granting his Allied Drug and Chemical concessions for trade with the Soviets and requested an Allied Drug representative to be present in the Soviet Union.[25]
When his father was imprisoned, Hammer and his brother took Allied Drug, the family business, to new heights, reselling equipment they had bought at depressed prices at the end of World War I. According to Hammer, his first business success was in 1919, manufacturing and selling a ginger extract, which legally contained high levels of alcohol. This was extremely popular during Prohibition, and the company had $1 million in sales that year.[citation needed]
Family envoy in Soviet Union
While Julius was imprisoned, he sent Armand Hammer, who could not speak any Russian, to the Soviet Union to look after the affairs of Allied Drug and Chemical.
In 1921, while waiting for his internship to begin at
Career
Early Soviet ventures
First trip to Russia
After leaving
Asbestos concession
During his time in Soviet Russia and later the Soviet Union, he perfected bribery and money-laundering techniques, which were exposed later in the 1960s and 1970s during which he tape-recorded his payoffs.[36] After returning to the United States, Hammer stated that Lenin had granted him an asbestos concession for 25 years to mine asbestos from the Urals in Soviet Russia.[37][38] According to Hammer, on his initial trip, he took $60,000 in medical supplies to aid in a typhus epidemic and made a deal with Lenin for furs, caviar, and jewelry expropriated by the Soviet state in exchange for a million bushels (27,216 tons) shipment of surplus American wheat.[38]
Lenin New Economic Policy
During Lenin's New Economic Policy, Armand Hammer became the mediator for 38 international companies in their dealings with the USSR.[39] Before Lenin's death, Hammer negotiated the import of Fordson tractors into the USSR, which served a major role in agricultural mechanization in the country.[40][39] Later, after Stalin came to power, additional deals were negotiated with Hammer as an American–Soviet negotiator.[39]
Hammer's move to Soviet Union
He moved to the USSR in the 1920s to oversee these operations, especially his large business manufacturing and exporting pens and pencils.
Return to the United States
Back in the United States, Hammer was bequeathed a few Fabergé eggs by the Soviets between 1930 and 1933.[47][48] The authenticity of the artifacts was questioned.[49] According to Géza von Habsburg, Armand's brother Victor Hammer stated Stalin's trade commissar Anastas Mikoyan provided Fabergé hallmarking tools to Armand to sell fakes,[48][50] and Victor stated a 1938 New York sale he ran with Armand, which grossed several million dollars, consisted of both authentic and inauthentic items (called Fauxbergé by Habsburg), with commissions going back to Mikoyan.[48] Although certainly some fakes were produced, on close examination many of the so-called fake items turned out to actually be from various workshops, particularly that of Henrik Wigstrom, and had been appropriated by the Soviet government when they closed the Faberge company. As the items were either unfinished or not ready for retail sale, many were not hallmarked, so Hammer and his associates finished the work.[citation needed]
In his 1983 book, Red Carpet, author Joseph Finder discusses Hammer's "extensive involvement with Russia."[51] In Dossier: The Secret History of Armand Hammer, Edward Jay Epstein called Hammer "a virtual spy" for the Soviet Union.[52]
Oil company, Libya deals, and return to Soviet negotiation
After returning to the US, Hammer entered into a diverse array of business, art, cultural, and humanitarian endeavors, including investing in various U.S. oil-production efforts.
He gained enormous wealth through his United Distillers of America, which was a 1933 established firm known as the A. Hammer Cooperage Corporation until 1946, when it changed its name to United Distillers of America Ltd.
His oil investments were later parlayed into control of
In 1973, Libya nationalized 51% of Oxy's holdings in Libya. In 1974, Armand Hammer announced a 35-year oil exploration agreement with Libya, the first such agreement signed by Libya after Muammar Gaddafi came to power in September 1969. By the 1974 deal, 81% of the oil extracted by Occidental Petroleum was going to the Libyan government, with only 19% retained by Occidental Petroleum. At the time, Oxy was the second largest producer of oil in Libya, and Libya was the company's only major source of crude. The Libyan government continually threatened the assets of the company, who would usually give in to Gaddafi's demands.[58]
Throughout his life Hammer continued personal and business dealings with the Soviet Union, despite the
Détente
Through Hammer's closeness to
In early 1969, Armand Hammer obtained control of Eaton's Tower International[a] through which Hammer would have a controlling majority stake in Tower International in exchange for Hammer's Occidental Petroleum assuming the debts of Tower International and Eaton receiving 45% of any profits from Tower International's future projects.[65][66][b][c]
During Soviet times Armand Hammer also financed the World Trade Center Moscow , which opened in 1979 and became known as the Hammer Center.[70]
Trade deals between Nixon and Brezhnev
After Richard Nixon, as the first United States President to visit the Soviet Union, traveled to Moscow for a summit that ended on June 1, 1972, Hammer traveled to Moscow arriving July 14, 1972,[d] and, with Sargent Shriver as his legal advisor, negotiated the first trade agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union following Nixon's summit.[72] Six weeks prior to Nixon's departure, Hammer personally gave Maurice Stans, the finance chairman of Nixon's campaign fund, $46,000 in cash from a numbered bank account in Switzerland which Hammer used as his slush fund money.[73] Later, in September 1972 Hammer gave Nixon's campaign fund an additional $54,000 from the same Swiss bank account amounting to a total of $100,000 that Hammer donated to Nixon's campaign fund.[73] On July 18, 1972, Hammer returned to the United States through London and called Tim Babcock, Hammer's lobbyist for the Nixon administration, to have him arrange a meeting with Nixon through H. R. Haldeman, who was Nixon's chief of staff, in order to debrief the President about Hammer's trade deal which occurred on July 20, 1972.[74]
During
On 27 July 1978, the fertilizer deal began functioning in the
Illegal financial support of Nixon's Watergate fund
Politically, Hammer was a Democrat; but according to the memoir of his lawyer Louis Nizer, he was also one of "many executives who contribute to both political parties [and] preferred no publicity about his dual gifts." In 1972, "under pressure" from various sources, Hammer donated an unusual amount to Nixon's second campaign: "He wished his substantial contribution to Nixon to be anonymous because he himself was a Democrat."[85] Hammer anonymously gave $46,000 to support Nixon before a 1971 law took effect on April 7, 1972, which banned political contributions both anonymous and through another person.[86] Later, in September 1972, Armand Hammer made an additional three illegal contributions totaling $54,000 to Richard Nixon's Watergate fund through friends of former Montana Governor Tim Babcock, who was Hammer's vice president of Occidental Petroleum,[73] after which both Hammer and Babcock pleaded guilty to charges involving illegal contributions.[86][87][88] Hammer received probation and a $3,000 fine.[85] In August 1989, US President George H. W. Bush pardoned Hammer for the illegal contributions to aid Nixon's re-election in 1972.[86][46]
Association with the Gore family
A 2003 interview with
Hammer was very fond of Gore Jr. and, in 1984, under Hammer's guidance, Gore Jr. sought Tennessee's Senate office previously held by Howard Baker. Hammer supposedly promised Gore Sr. that he could make his son the president of the United States. It was under Hammer's encouragement and support that Gore Jr. sought the Democratic Party presidential nomination in 1988.[96][97]
Stake in Arm & Hammer
In the 1980s Hammer owned a considerable amount of stock in
President's Cancer Panel
In 1981, Hammer was appointed by US President Ronald Reagan to serve on the three-member President's Cancer Panel and he later served as chairman of the panel from 1984 to 1989.[101][102][103] As chairman of the panel, he announced a campaign to raise $1 billion a year to fight cancer.[104]
Other activities and pursuits
Hammer was a philanthropist, supporting causes related to
Among his legacies is the
Together with his friends Harry and Rosa Strygler, he also supported several Jewish foundations, particularly those associated with the Holocaust. Hammer hungered for a Nobel Peace Prize, and he was repeatedly nominated for one, including by Menachem Begin,[115] but never won.
In 1986, Forbes magazine estimated his net worth at $200 million.[116]
Hammer made a guest appearance on a 1988 episode of The Cosby Show (as the grandfather of a friend of Theo Huxtable's who was suffering from cancer), saying that a cure for cancer was imminent.[117]
Hammer was leading Occidental in 1988 when its oil rig,
As of 2016, he has been the subject of six biographies: in 1975 (Considine, authorized biography), 1985 (Bryson, coffee table book), Weinberg 1989, Blumay 1992, Epstein 1996, and Alef 2009; and two autobiographies (1932 and a bestseller in 1987). His art collection, The Armand Hammer Collection: Four Centuries of Masterpieces, published by the Armand Hammer Foundation in multiple editions, eventually became five centuries of masterpieces, sometimes in conjunction with museums where the collection was displayed.[118] and his philanthropic projects[119] were the subject of numerous publications.
Awards
In 1978, Hammer, as a non-citizen of the Soviet Union, received the Soviet Union's award the
By the time of his death, Hammer had received other awards, including:- Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement (1978)[120]
- US: National Medal of Arts (1987)
- France: Legion of Honor
- Italy: Grand Officer of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (1 August 1981)[121]
- Royal Order of the Polar Star
- Austria: Knight Commander's Cross
- Pakistan: Hilal-i-Quaid-Azam Peace Award
- Israel: Leadership Award
- Venezuela: Order of Andrés Bello
- Mexico: National Recognition Award
- Bulgaria: Jubilee Medal
- Belgium: Order of the Crown.[111]
- Columbia College, his alma mater[122]
Personal life
Hammer was the middle of three sons. He had close relationships, including in business, with his brothers, Harry and Victor Hammer, throughout their lives.
Hammer married three times. In 1927, Hammer married a Russian actress,
Hammer had one son, Julian Armand Hammer, by his first wife.[124][1]: 120 Hammer's grandson is businessman Michael Armand Hammer; his great-grandson is actor Armie Hammer.
Hammer died of
See also
- Cyrus Eaton
- Fauxbergé
- List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States
Publications
Articles
Books
- The Quest of the Romanoff Treasure. William Farquhar Payson (1932). 241 pages.
- Hammer. Perigee Books, 1988. Co-authored by Neil Lyndon.
- Reviewed by Tom Gainor, VP of Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. “Hammer: Odyssey of an Entrepreneur”, The Region, August 1987.[125]
Further reading
Biographical profiles
- Ingham, John N. Biographical Dictionary of American Business Leaders, Vol. 2: H–M. ISBN 0313239088.
- ISBN 978-0028649825.
Books
- ISBN 0060108363. 287 pages.
- Bryson, John. The World of Armand Hammer. Abrams, 1985. ISBN 978-0810910935. 255 pages.
- Weinberg, Steve. Armand Hammer: The Untold Story. Boston: ISBN 978-0316928397. 501 pages.
- Blumay, Carl. Dark Side of Power: The Real Armand Hammer. New York: ISBN 978-0671700539. 494 pages.
- ISBN 978-0679448020. 418 pages.
- C-SPAN Booknotes interview with author Edward Jay Epstein (January 5, 1997).
Catalogs
- Denver Art Museum. The Armand Hammer Collection: Four Centuries of Masterpieces. An exhibition catalog (February 18–April 9, 1978).
Novels
- Triantafyllou, Soti. To Ergostassio ton Molivion [The Pencil Factory] (in Greek). Patakis (2000).
Notes
- Kazakh SSR in the Soviet Union, Eaton's son Cyrus Eaton Jr., established the Canadian firm Tower International in Montreal to act as an intermediary because direct trade between the United States and the Soviet Union was unthinkable.[65]
- ^ Later, during the 1980s perestroika, Cyrus Eaton World Trade Ltd. contributed to the opening up of trade between the Soviet Union and Canada.[67]
- ^ In July 1972, Armand Hammer's financial wizard Dorman Commons, who was the chief financial officer at Hammer's Occidental Petroleum in Los Angeles, estimated that Tower International's International Trade Center project in Moscow would cost $100 million and would be a complete flop if détente failed.[68] On July 31, 1972, Commons voiced his thoughts with Hammer after which Hammer fired Commons effective August 1, 1972.[69]
- ^ During this trip which Mike Brook organized, Hammer was the first person to fly to the Soviet Union in a privately owned airplane, his Gulfstream jet, and did not go through the typical passport and customs checks.[71]
- ^ Occidental held large phosphate reserves near Jacksonville, Florida.[77]
References
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- ^ Epstein 1996, p. 257.
- ^ a b c d "Самый-самый порт Пивденный: от Хаммера до наших дней" [The most-most port of Pivdenny: from Hammer to the present day]. "Юкрейниан Шиппинг Мегазин" (USM) website (in Russian). June 11, 2021. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
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- ^ Barmine, Alexander (1945). One Who Survived. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. pp. 158.
- ^ a b Andrews, Robert M. (August 15, 1989). "Armand Hammer, Elated Over Bush Pardon, Usually Gets What He Wants". APnews.com. Associated Press. Archived from the original on August 1, 2022. Retrieved August 13, 2021.
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- ^ "A Virtual Spy: DOSSIER: The Secret History of Armand Hammer. By Edward J. Epstein (Random House, 1996, 418 pp.)". Los Angeles Times. October 27, 1996. Archived from the original on December 17, 2014. Retrieved October 28, 2014.
- ^ a b "UNITED DISTILLERS (OF AMERICA), LTD. v. COMMISSIONER". leagle.com. March 9, 1959. Archived from the original on August 1, 2022. Retrieved August 13, 2021.
- ^ "Army Pushes Bomber Crash Investigation: 5 of 13 Dead Remain Unidentified as Empire State Bldg. Reopens". Brooklyn Eagle. July 30, 1945. pp. 1–2. Archived from the original on August 15, 2021. Retrieved July 30, 2021.
- ^ Fenton, James (March 14, 2008). "Restoration and removal: James Fenton on moving rooms around the world". The Guardian. Archived from the original on August 15, 2021. Retrieved August 13, 2021.
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ Yergin, Daniel. "The Prize, page 557. Simon & Schuster, 1991
- ^ Epstein 1996, pp. 265–268.
- ^ Ольбик, Александр Степанович (Olbik, Alexander Stepanovich) (October 13, 2011). "БЫЛ ЛИ АРМАНД ХАММЕР АГЕНТОМ КГБ?" [WAS ARMAND HAMMER A KGB AGENT?] (in Russian). Archived from the original on August 15, 2021. Retrieved August 13, 2021.
The article is near the end of the list of excerpts from the 2006 book Ностальгические хроники (Nostalgic Chronicles) by Александр Степанович Ольбик (Alexander Stepanovich Olbik).
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Париж Хемингуэя и не только..." [Hemingway's Paris and more ...]. Форумы inFrance - Франция по-русски website. 2009. p. 17. Archived from the original on August 15, 2021. Retrieved August 13, 2021.
See the entry at 11/15/2009, 10:42 pm by Camilio at the bottom of the page.
- ^ a b Epstein 1996, p. 266.
- ^ a b Demont, John (November 13, 1989). "Forging a Really Big Deal: A Tycoon's Son Makes His Mark". Maclean's. Archived from the original on November 26, 2020. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
- ^ Epstein 1996, pp. 263–265.
- ^ Chisholm, Patricia; Newman, Peter C. (November 13, 1989). "To Russia with Cash". Maclean's. Archived from the original on November 24, 2020. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
- ^ Epstein 1996, pp. 271–273.
- ^ Epstein 1996, p. 273.
- ^ "World Trade Center Set To Expand". The Moscow Times. May 17, 2005. Archived from the original on August 3, 2022. Retrieved August 3, 2022.
- ^ Epstein 1996, pp. 266–267.
- ^ Epstein 1996, p. 268.
- ^ a b c Epstein 1996, p. 270.
- ^ Epstein 1996, pp. 270–271.
- ^ Epstein 1996, pp. 267–276.
- ^ Epstein 1996, p. 267.
- ^ a b Cristy, Matt (March 31, 1997). "Phosphate treasure draws little interest". Jacksonville Business Journal. Jacksonville, Florida. Archived from the original on November 7, 2002. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 6, 2021.
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- ^ ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved December 7, 2021.
- ^ "Aerial view of the Port of Pivdenny". USM.media. June 11, 2021. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021. Retrieved August 19, 2021.
This picture is from the article Самый-самый порт Пивденный: от Хаммера до наших дней (The most-most port of Pivdenny: from Hammer to the present day) in the Ukrainian Shipping Magazine (USM).
- ^ a b Мячина, Анна (Myachina, Anna) (October 17, 2015). "10 интересных фактов о порте "Южный"" [10 interesting facts about the port "Yuzhny"]. Одесская жизнь (odessa1.com) (in Russian). Archived from the original on August 19, 2021. Retrieved August 19, 2021.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Hammer Exhibit Opens at Odessa Fine Art Museum". Los Angeles Times. September 3, 1986. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
- Українська правда (pravda.com) (in Ukrainian). April 17, 2019. Archivedfrom the original on April 17, 2019. Retrieved August 19, 2021.
- ^ ISBN 9780385126700.
- ^ a b c Rampe, David (August 15, 1989). "Armand Hammer Pardoned by Bush". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 14, 2021. Retrieved August 13, 2021.
- ^ Ripley, Anthony (December 11, 1974). "Guilt Admitted by a Nixon Donor". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 15, 2021. Retrieved August 13, 2021.
- ^ Oelsner, Lesley (October 2, 1975). "Hammer Enters Plea In Nixon Fund Case". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 15, 2021. Retrieved August 13, 2021.
- ^ АРХИПОВ, Андрей (ARKHIPOV, Andrey) (July 8, 2003). "Альберт Гор и его семья много лет служили СССР" [Albert Gore and his family served the USSR for many years]. "Стрингер" (stringer-agency.ru) (in Russian). Archived from the original on August 6, 2003. Retrieved August 21, 2021.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Reitwiesner, William Addams. "Ancestry of Al Gore". wargs.com. Archived from the original on October 23, 2018. Retrieved August 21, 2021.
- ^ Babcock, Charles R. (August 15, 1992). "Gore Getting $20,000 a Year for Mineral Rights on Farm". the Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 10, 2021. Retrieved August 21, 2021.
- ^ "Gore's Oil Money". The Nation. Archived from the original on July 1, 2009. Retrieved October 20, 2007.
- ^ Frantz, Douglas (March 19, 2000). "THE 2000 CAMPAIGN: THE VICE PRESIDENT; Gore Family's Ties to Oil Company Magnate Reap Big Rewards, and a Few Problems". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 24, 2018. Retrieved October 20, 2007.
- ^ "Campaigner's finances Where the presidential hopefuls have invested their fortunes may reveal something about the character of each". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on October 15, 2007. Retrieved October 20, 2007.
- ^ "Gore may be flawed, but message is sincere". USA Today. August 16, 2006. Archived from the original on April 3, 2007. Retrieved October 20, 2007.
- ^ Epstein 1996.
- ^ Neil Lyndon. Hammer.
Like his father before him, Al Gore Jr.'s political career was lavishly sponsored by Hammer from the moment it began until Hammer died, only two years before Gore Clinton race for the White House in 1992.
- ^ "The Straight Dope: Did tycoon Armand Hammer have anything to do with Arm & Hammer baking soda?". straightdope.com. May 21, 1982. Archived from the original on August 18, 2020. Retrieved December 14, 2009.
- ^ "Armand Hammer buys into Arm & Hammer". UPI. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved August 8, 2020.
- ^ "Armand Hammer to Own Pinch of Arm & Hammer". The Washington Post. September 23, 1986. Archived from the original on November 6, 2020. Retrieved August 8, 2020.
- ^ "Appointment of Armand Hammer as a Member of the President's Cancer Panel, and Designation as Chairman". presidency.ucsb.edu. The American Presidency Project, University of California, Santa Barbara. Archived from the original on January 21, 2021. Retrieved August 8, 2020.
- ^ "Designation of Armand Hammer To Be Chairman of the President's Cancer Panel". presidency.ucsb.edu. The American Presidency Project, University of California, Santa Barbara. Archived from the original on November 2, 2020. Retrieved August 8, 2020.
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- ^ Hammer, Victor J. (1976). Elizabeth Charleston. New York: S & R Hayden. p. 8.
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- ^ "Hammer Icons". Time. August 16, 1937. Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. Retrieved September 27, 2008.
- ^ Landi, Ann (December 1, 1996). "150 Years of Helping Shape a Nation's Taste". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 19, 2016. Retrieved February 5, 2017.
- ^ "Knoedler Kasmin Limited Records". oac.cdlib.org. Retrieved November 7, 2023.
- ^ "John Richardson's "Sacred monsters, sacred masters", a vision of the idiosyncratic personalities that left their mark on the art world". The Art Newspaper - International art news and events. June 30, 2002. Retrieved November 7, 2023.
- ^ a b c Epstein 1996, p. 8.
- ^ "Why Is Princess Diana In The New 'House Of Hammer' Doc About Armie Hammer?". Bustle. September 2, 2022. Retrieved March 14, 2023.
- ^ Holden, Anthony (March 8, 2003). "Bad heir day". The Guardian. Archived from the original on August 15, 2021. Retrieved August 13, 2021.
- ^ "It's time to clean up your act Charles". The Herald. Glasgow. March 10, 2003. Archived from the original on August 15, 2021. Retrieved August 13, 2021.
- ^ Donald Woutat (June 7, 1987). "The Unfinished Business of Armand Hammer; After A Lifetime in the Public Eye, He Still Worries About His Place in History". Los Angeles Times Magazine. p. 8.
- ^ "Forbes 400 Members In Trouble With The Law". Forbes. Excerpted All the Money in the World. September 14, 2007. Archived from the original on November 20, 2016. Retrieved August 24, 2017.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ O'Connor, John J. (January 21, 1988). "TV Reviews; An Update On 'The Cosby Show'". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 31, 2013. Retrieved March 31, 2010.
- ^ Honore Daumier 1808–1879: The Armand Hammer Daumier Collection Incorporating a Collection from George Longstreet, 1981
- ^ Theodore Lockwood (1997). Dreams & Promises: The Story of the Armand Hammer United World College : A Critical Analysis.
- American Academy of Achievement. Archivedfrom the original on December 15, 2016. Retrieved August 1, 2020.
- ^ "Hammer, Dott. Armand". quirinale.it (in Italian). Retrieved November 27, 2022.
- ^ "John Jay Awards". Columbia College Alumni Association. December 14, 2016. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
- ^ Peter Flint (December 19, 1989). "Frances Hammer, A Painter, Was 87; Wife of Industrialist". The New York Times.
- ^ "Miss Mobley Has Nuptials In Oklahoma". The New York Times. January 13, 1985. Archived from the original on March 26, 2010. Retrieved March 31, 2010.
- ^ "Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis-The Region-Book Review: Hammer: Odyssey of an Entrepreneur (August 1987)". The Region. August 1987. Archived from the original on July 24, 2008. Retrieved May 18, 2016.
Bibliography
- Epstein, Edward Jay (1996). Dossier : the secret history of Armand Hammer (1st ed.). New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0679448020.