Canadian Cascade Arc
Canadian Cascade Arc | |
---|---|
Highest point | |
Elevation | 3,160 m (10,370 ft) |
Coordinates | 51°31′42″N 126°06′48″W / 51.52833°N 126.11333°W |
Geography | |
Location | British Columbia, Canada |
Parent range | Cascade Volcanic Arc |
The Canadian Cascade Arc, also called the Canadian Cascades, is the
Over the last 29 million years, the Canadian Cascade Arc has been erupting a chain of volcanoes along the British Columbia Coast. At least four volcanic zones in British Columbia are related to Cascade Arc volcanism. This includes a large volcanic plateau in The Interior and three linear volcanic belts on The Coast. They were formed during different geological periods, separated by millions of years, and occur in three regions referred to as the back-arc, main-arc and fore-arc. The youngest of the three belts has been sporadically active over the last 4.0–3.0 million years, with the latest eruption having taken place possibly in the last 1,000 years. About 2,350 years ago, a major explosive eruption occurred, sending a massive ash column into the atmosphere. This is recognized as the largest volcanic eruption throughout Canada within the last 10,000 years.
In historical times, the Canadian Cascade Arc has been considerably less active than the American portion of the volcanic arc. It also has no records of historical eruptions. Nevertheless, the volcanic arc poses a threat to the surrounding region. Any volcanic hazard—ranging from landslides to eruptions—could pose a significant risk to humans and wildlife. Even though there are no historical eruptions in the Canadian Cascade Arc, eruptive activity is very likely to resume; if this were to happen, relief efforts would be quickly organized. Teams such as the Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan (IVENP) are prepared to notify people threatened by volcanic eruptions.
Geology
Formation
The Cascade Arc was originally created by subduction of the now vanished Farallon Plate at the Cascadia subduction zone. After 28 million years ago, the Farallon Plate segmented to form the Juan de Fuca Plate, which continues to subduct under the Pacific Northwest of North America.[1] In the last few million years, volcanism has declined along the volcanic arc. The probable explanation lies in the rate of convergence between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates. These two tectonic plates currently converge 3 cm (1.2 in) to 4 cm (1.6 in) per year. This is only about half the rate of convergence from seven million years ago.[2]
Because of the very large fault area, the Cascadia subduction zone can produce large earthquakes of magnitude 7.0 or greater. The interface between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates remains locked for periods of roughly 500 years. During these periods, stress builds up on the interface between the plates and causes uplift of the North American margin. When the plate finally slips, the 500 years of stored energy are released in a massive earthquake.[3] The most recent, the 1700 Cascadia earthquake, was recorded in the oral traditions of the First Nations people on Vancouver Island. It caused considerable tremors and a massive tsunami that traveled across the Pacific Ocean. The significant shaking associated with this earthquake demolished houses of the Cowichan Tribes on Vancouver Island and caused several landslides. It also made it too difficult for the Cowichan people to stand, and the tremors were so lengthy that they were sickened. The earthquake-generated tsunami ultimately devastated a winter village at Pachena Bay, killing all the people that lived there. The 1700 Cascadia earthquake caused near-shore subsidence, submerging marshes and forests on the coast that were later buried under more recent debris.[4]
Unlike most subduction zones worldwide, there is no deep oceanic trench present along the continental margin in Cascadia.[5] The reason is that the mouth of the Columbia River empties directly into the subduction zone and deposits silt at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean, burying this large depression. Massive floods from prehistoric Glacial Lake Missoula during the Late Pleistocene also deposited large amounts of sediment into the small trench.[6] However, as with other subduction zones, the outer margin is slowly being compressed like a giant spring.[3] When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals, the Cascadia subduction zone can create very large earthquakes, such as the magnitude 9.0 Cascadia earthquake on January 26, 1700.[4]
Main-arc volcanism
Pemberton Volcanic Belt
Volcanic activity of the main-arc began at the southern end of the Pemberton Volcanic Belt about 29 million years ago during the middle
Extensive erosion of the Pemberton Volcanic Belt has removed most of its volcanic peaks, exposing their
Chilliwack batholith
The first volcanic event 29 million years ago formed intrusive rocks of the large Chilliwack batholith, which extends south into the
Coquihalla Volcanic Complex
Volcanism 22 to 21 million years ago constructed the Coquihalla Volcanic Complex about 32 km (20 mi) northeast of
The Coquihalla Volcanic Complex began its formation when large
Subsequent eruptions produced pyroclastic flows, which were followed by another short break in volcanic activity. Vent clearing eruptions produced pyroclastic breccia, which linger on a mountain ridge north and east of Coquihalla Mountain. Movement along the Jim Kelly Creek fault ceased and subsequent pyroclastic flows filled and overflowed that edge of the basin. Later, numerous subvolcanic intrusions were emplaced and post-Miocene uplift tilted and warped the overlying volcanic rocks. Erosion removed what may have been extensive volcanic cover from the surrounding area and uncovered the buried domes and intrusions. Today, the Coquihalla Volcanic Complex covers an area of about 30 km2 (12 sq mi) and the volume of pyroclastic material is 50 km3 (12 cu mi). A large stock, composed of pyroxene diorite and biotite-pyroxene quartz diorite, forms the present base of Coquihalla Mountain.[10]
Mount Barr Plutonic Complex
South of the
Crevasse Crag Volcanic Complex
About 22 km (14 mi) southeast of
Salal Creek Pluton
At the headwaters of Salal Creek is a roughly circular composite stock known as the Salal Creek Pluton.[13] It is estimated to be 8.0 million years old, indicating that it is one of the youngest felsic plutons exposed in the Pacific Ranges.[14][15] Like other Pemberton Belt plutons, the Salal Creek Pluton is generally thought by geologists to be the root of a deeply eroded volcano.[16] Episodic eruptions may have formed a large dome, but rapid erosion to a depth of about 1 km (0.62 mi) has removed the overlying volcanic structure, exposing the 10 km (6.2 mi) wide Salal Creek Pluton.[14] It is complex in structure, consisting of an older outer ring of coarse-grained quartz monzonite and a younger inner stock of finer-grained and porphyritic quartz monzonite.[13] The pluton covers an area of 60 km2 (23 sq mi).[15]
Garibaldi Volcanic Belt
After Pemberton Belt volcanism declined 4.0–3.0 million years ago, volcanic activity shifted westwards to form the younger Garibaldi Volcanic Belt. This represents the modern Canadian Cascade Arc, consisting of lava flows, lava domes,
Three echelon segments comprise the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt and are consequently referred to as the southern, central and northern segments. Each segment has at least one principal volcano along with several smaller edifices. The northern segment intersects the older Pemberton Volcanic Belt near the Mount Meager massif where it overlies uplifted and deeply eroded remains of Pemberton Belt subvolcanic plutons.[2]
Southern segment
Three principal volcanoes comprise the southern segment along with several smaller edifies.[2] The largest and youngest principal volcano, Mount Garibaldi, is a dissected stratovolcano that began its formation 250,000 years ago.[2][17] This eruptive period built a broad composite cone made of dacite and breccia. Parts of this "proto-Garibaldi" or ancestral volcano are exposed on Garibaldi's lower northern and eastern flanks and on the upper 240 m (790 ft) of Brohm Ridge. Around where Columnar Peak and possibly Glacier Pikes are now located, a series of coalescing dacite lava domes were constructed. During the ensuing long period of dormancy, the Cheekye River cut a deep valley into the cone's western flank that was later filled with a glacier. After reaching its maximum extent the Cheekye Glacier and Cordilleran Ice Sheet were covered with volcanic ash and fragmental debris from Garibaldi. This period of growth began with the eruption of the Atwell Peak plug dome about 13,000 years ago from a ridge surrounded by the ice sheet. As the plug dome grew, massive sheets of broken lava crumbled as talus down its sides. Numerous Peléan pyroclastic flows accompanied these cooler avalanches, forming a 6.3 km3 (1.5 cu mi) fragmental cone and an overall slope of 12 to 15 degrees. Some of the glacial ice was melted by the eruptions, forming a small lake against Brohm Ridge's southern arm. The volcanic sandstones seen today atop Brohm Ridge were created by ash settling in this lake. Glacial overlap was most significant on the west and somewhat to the south. Subsequent melting of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet and its component glaciers initiated a series of avalanches and mudflows on Garibaldi's western flank that moved nearly half of the original cone's volume into the Squamish Valley where it covers 26 km2 (10 sq mi) to a thickness of about 91 m (299 ft). Gaps left by melting ice caused minor to moderate cone distortion where the Cordilleran Ice Sheet was thin and major distortion where it was thick. The ice was thickest in and thus cone distortion was greatest over the buried Cheekye valley.[17] Later volcanism occurred from Dalton Dome, which forms Garibaldi's western summit. Lava flows mantled the landslide headwall on Garibaldi's western flank. Around the same time, a voluminous dacite lava flow from Opal Cone travelled 20 km (12 mi) down Ring Creek on Garibaldi's southeastern flank without encountering any residual glacial ice.[2] These latest eruptions of Mount Garibaldi occurred in the early Holocene shortly after remains of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet retreated in regional valleys between 10,700 and 9,300 years ago.[2][18]
The Black Tusk, the oldest and most striking of the three principal volcanoes, is the glacially dissected remains of a stratovolcano that formed between 1.3 and 1.1 million years ago.[19][20] Eruptions produced hornblende andesite lava flows and lithic tuffs. Prolonged erosion destroyed the original cone. The bluffs northwest, southwest and southeast of the main volcanic edifice are remains of this ancestral volcano. Renewed volcanism between 210,000 and 170,000 years ago produced hypersthene andesite lava flows, which locally terminate with precipitous 100 m (330 ft) thick ice-contact margins. This latest eruptive activity culminated with extrusion of an endogenous dome and related lava which form the present 2,316 m (7,598 ft) high summit spire. Later, the Cordilleran Ice Sheet carved a deep, north-trending U-shaped valley into the eastern flank of this edifice.[2]
The
Along the northeastern shore of
Central segment
Volcanism in the central segment began at least 4.0 million years ago at deeply dissected Mount Cayley. This eruptive period, lasting until 0.6 million years ago, produced dacite lava flows and pyroclastic breccia. A central plug dome forming the summit spires of Mount Cayley represents the youngest feature that formed during this eruptive period. Subsequent activity 0.3–0.2 million years ago began with the eruption of a dacite lava flow into the Shovelnose Creek valley. This resulted in the formation of two small lava domes. Mount Fee is a 1 km (0.62 mi) long and 0.25 km (0.16 mi) wide spine of rhyodacite situated on a mountain ridge east of the Squamish River. Like Mount Cayley, it predates the appearance of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet. Other volcanoes in the central segment, such as Slag Hill, Ember Ridge, Cauldron Dome, Pali Dome and Ring Mountain, were formed when lava came into contact with the Cordilleran Ice Sheet. They are similar in structure to tuyas, displaying oversteepened ice-contact margins.[2]
At least two sequences of basaltic andesite lava flows are deposited south of Tricouni Peak. One of these sequences, known as Tricouni Southwest, creates a cliff on the eastern side of a north–south trending channel with a depth of 200 m (660 ft) adjacent to the High Falls Creek mouth. The eastern flank of the lava flow, outside the High Falls Creek channel, has a more constant structure. Several fine-scale columnar joints and the overall structure of the lava flow suggest that its western portion, along the length of the channel, ponded against glacial ice. Near its southern unit, lava oozed into cracks in the glacial ice. This has been identified by the existence of spire-like cooling formations, although many of these edifices have been destroyed by erosional processes. Other features that indicate the lava ponded against glacial ice include its unusually thick structure and its steep cliffs. Therefore, the Tricouni Southwest lava flow was erupted about 10,000 years ago when the regional Fraser Glaciation was retreating. The explanation for the western portion displaying ice-contact features while the eastern portion does not is likely because its western flank lies in a north–south trending channel, which would have been able to maintain smaller amounts of solar heat than its unsheltered eastern flank. As a result, the western portion of the lava flow records glaciation during a period when the eastern slopes were free from glacial ice.[25] Tricouni Southeast, the other volcanic sequence south of Tricouni Peak, consists of at least four andesite or dacite lava flows that outcrop as several small cliffs and bluffs on extensively vegetated flanks. They reach thicknesses of 100 m (330 ft) and contain small amounts of hyaloclastite. The feeder of their origins has not been discovered but is likely located at the summit of the mound. These lavas form ice-marginal edifies, suggesting that every lava flow was erupted about 10,000 years ago when the vast Cordilleran Ice Sheet was retreating and remains of glacial ice were sparse.[26]
Exposed along the Cheakamus River and its tributaries are the Cheakamus Valley basalts. At least four basaltic flows comprise the sequence and were deposited during periods of volcanic activity from an unknown vent between 0.01 and 1.6 million years ago. Pillow lava is abundant along the bases the flows, some of which are underlain by hyaloclastite breccia. In 1958, Canadian volcanologist Bill Mathews suggested that the lava flows were erupted during periods of subglacial activity and traveled through trenches or tunnels melted in glacial ice of the Fraser Glaciation. Mathews based this on the age of the underlying glacial till, the existence of pillow lava close to the bottom of some lavas, indicating subaqueous volcanism, the columnar jointing at the edges of the lavas, indicating rapid cooling, and the absence of apparent palaeogeography.[27]
Northern segment
The northern segment consists of one large volcanic complex, the Mount Meager massif, and a group of basaltic and andesitic volcanoes known as the Bridge River Cones. Mount Meager is composed of at least four overlapping stratovolcanoes that become progressively younger from south to north. These were formed in the last 2.2 million years, with the latest eruption having been about 2,350 years ago. The mafic, intermediate and felsic volcanic rocks comprising Meager were erupted from at least eight volcanic vents.[2]
Extending north of the Mount Meager massif almost to the
Disputed volcanic features
At least two volcanoes and one volcanic group may have formed as a result of Canadian Cascade Arc volcanism.[28][29][30] The oldest feature, the Franklin Glacier Complex, is a deeply eroded 20 km (12 mi) long and 6 km (3.7 mi) wide geological structure with an elevation of over 2,000 m (6,600 ft). It consists of dikes and subvolcanic intrusions overlain by tuffs, dacite breccia and eroded remains of a 450 m (1,480 ft) thick sequence of hornblende andesite lava flows.[28] These were formed about 6.8 and 3.5 million years ago, indicating that a period of inactivity occurred between these events for at least 3.3 million years.[1][28] Because the Franklin Glacier Complex has not been studied in detail by scientists, very little is known about it.[28] The oldest known magmatic event, 6.8 million years ago, is consistent with volcanism of the Pemberton Volcanic Belt. Therefore, it can be considered one of the northernmost zones of this geological feature. However, the youngest event, about 3.5 million years old, correspondes with the shift from Pemberton to Garibaldi activity.[1] This indicates that the Franklin Glacier Complex can be considered part of the Pemberton Volcanic Belt or the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt.[28]
About 55 km (34 mi) north-northwest of the Franklin Glacier Complex is the deeply dissected Silverthrone Caldera.[29] It is 20 km (12 mi) wide, with steep slopes extending from near sea level to a maximum elevation of 3,160 m (10,370 ft).[2] Like Franklin to the south-southeast, Silverthrone has not been studied in detail by scientists. As a result, its affinity and eruptive history is poorly known. It is considered to be part of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, but it also lies on the overlapping trend of the much older Pemberton Volcanic Belt.[29] At least three phases of volcanic activity have been identified at Silverthrone. The first phase, following collapse of the caldera, deposited a thick sequence of undated basal breccia. It contains irregular subvolcanic intrusions, as well as a profusion of dikes.[2] In some places, the basal breccia has been welded together by intense volcanic heat.[29] Subsequent activity 750,000 to 400,000 years ago constructed rhyolite, dacite and andesite lava domes, breccia and lava flows. Mount Silverthrone, a volcanic peak associated with the Silverthrone Caldera, consists of overlapping andesite and rhyolite lava domes that were formed during this eruptive period.[2] The third phase, less than 1,000 years ago, produced cinder cones, pyroclastic deposits and basaltic andesite lava flows that issued from vents on the rim of the caldera. Most of this activity occurred on the northern rim where lava flows traveled down the Pashleth Creek valley then into the Machmell River valley.[2][29] The entire lava flow sequence is at least 25 km (16 mi) long, ranging in elevation from 2,000 m (6,600 ft) to 100 m (330 ft). Many of the volcanic products are now buried under glacial ice. However, remains of cinder cones protrude through glaciers and lava flows are exposed at lower elevations, such as the extensive Machmell-Pashleth Creek lava flow.[29] A relatively small basaltic andesite lava flow extends from the caldera's southern rim into the headwaters of the Kingcome River.[2]
The
Back-arc volcanism
Paralleling the Canadian Cascade Arc 150 km (93 mi) to the northeast is an area composed of minor basaltic lava flows.[31] This zone, known as the Chilcotin Group, formed as a result of back-arc basin volcanism behind the Canadian Cascade Arc, in response to ongoing Cascadia subduction. Volcanic activity began 31 million years ago, but most of the volcanism occurred during two younger magmatic periods, the first between 6.0 and 10 million years ago and the other between 2.0 and 3.0 million years ago.[1][2][31] This indicates that most Chilcotin Group volcanism corresponded with volcanism in the Pemberton Belt, although some of the younger Chilcotin lavas were erupted during early stages of Garibaldi Belt volcanism. A few volcanic eruptions have occurred in the Chilcotin Group in the last 1.6 million years.[2]
The flat-lying Chilcotin Group lava plateau covers an area of 25,000 km2 (9,700 sq mi) and a volume of 1,800 km3 (430 cu mi). It consists of several thin, flat-lying
A number of pillow lava and pillow breccia deposits are exposed throughout the Chilcotin Group. Pyroclastic fall deposits, composed of lapilli, were erupted from volcanoes in the Pemberton Belt and are overlain by subsequent basaltic lava flows. Lava flows from volcanism between 16 and 14 million years ago outcrop adjacent to the margins of the current lava plateau, which consists largely of basalts that were erupted between 10 and 6.0 million years ago. More recent lava flows are exposed in cliffs along the Fraser Canyon. These were erupted between 3.0 and 1.0 million years ago and the volcanic vents they were erupted from have not been discovered.[2]
Fore-arc volcanism
Fore-arc volcanism was active on northern Vancouver Island 8.0 to 2.5 million years ago.
There is evidence that volcanic activity in the Alert Bay Belt migrated eastwards with time, as well as a shift from basalt to dacite or rhyolite volcanism. The first volcanic event, about 8.0 million years ago, occurred at the Brooks Peninsula, but most of the volcanoes were active about 3.0 million years ago. Most of the Alert Bay Belt volcanism corresponded with rapid changes in the geometry of Cascadia subduction and a hiatus in mainland Cascade Arc activity.[32] The latest volcanic event 2.5 million years ago occurred at Cluxewe Mountain, which consists of dacite lava.[2]
Geothermal and seismic activity
At least four volcanoes have had
A series of
Human history
Protection and monitoring
A number of volcanic features in the Canadian Cascade Arc are protected by provincial parks. Garibaldi Provincial Park was established in 1927 to protect the abundant geological history, glaciated mountains and other natural resources in the region. It was named after the 2,678 m (8,786 ft) high stratovolcano of Mount Garibaldi, which in turn was named after the Italian military and political leader Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860. To the northwest, Brandywine Falls Provincial Park protects Brandywine Falls, a 70 m (230 ft) high waterfall composed of at least four basaltic lava flows with columnar joints. Its name origin is unclear, but it may have originated from two surveyors named Jack Nelson and Bob Mollison.
No volcanoes in the Canadian Cascade Arc are monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active their magma systems are. The Canadian National Seismograph Network has been established to monitor earthquakes throughout Canada, but it is too far away to provide a good indication of what is happening under them. It may sense an increase in seismic activity they become very restless, but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption. It might detect activity only once a volcano has started erupting.[37] If they were to erupt, relief efforts would probably be orchestrated. The Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan (IVENP) was created to outline the notification procedure of some of the main agencies that would be involved in response to an erupting volcano in Canada, an eruption close to the Canada–United States border or any eruption that will have effects in Canada.[38]
See also
- Geology of the Pacific Northwest
- List of Cascade volcanoes
- List of volcanoes in Canada
- Volcanology of Western Canada
References
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- ^ a b Pinsent, R. H. (1996). "Exploration and Development Highlights Southwestern British Columbia - 1996". Victoria, British Columbia: Ministry of Employment and Investment: 13.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ Sooke, British Columbia: Geo-Facts: 7.)
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(help - ^ a b "Salal Creek, Salal, Sal, Float Creek". Government of British Columbia. Retrieved 2012-03-11.
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- ^ Edwards, Ben (November 2000). "Mt. Garibaldi, SW British Columbia, Canada". VolcanoWorld. Archived from the original on 2010-07-31. Retrieved 2012-09-08.
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- ^ Kelman, M.C.; Russell, J.K.; Hickson, C.J. (2002). Effusive intermediate glaciovolcanism in the Garibaldi volcanic belt, southwestern British Columbia, Canada. 101-605 Robson Street, Vancouver, British Columbia V6B 5J3, Canada: Geological Survey of Canada. p. 197.
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- ^ Kelman, Melanie (2009-03-10). "Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes". Tricouni Southeast Flows. Natural Resources Canada: 1.
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- ^ a b c d e Kelman, Melanie (2009-03-10). "Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes". Franklin Glacier. Natural Resources Canada: 12.
- ^ a b c d e f Kelman, Melanie (2009-03-10). "Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes". Silverthrone Caldera. Natural Resources Canada: 11.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Kelman, Melanie (2009-03-10). "Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes". Anahim Volcanic Belt: Milbanke Sound Cones. Natural Resources Canada: 10.
- ^ a b Kelman, Melanie (2009-03-10). "Chilcotin Plateau basalts". Catalogue of Canadian Volcanoes. Natural Resources Canada: 23.
- ^ ISSN 0377-0273.
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- ^ Hickson, Catherine (2009-03-10). "Volcanoes of Canada". Volcanology in the Geological Survey of Canada. Natural Resources Canada: 103.
- ^ Kelman, Melanie (2009-03-10). "Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes". Garibaldi Volcanic Belt: Mount Cayley Volcanic Field. Natural Resources Canada: 16.
- ^ Kelman, Melanie (2009-03-10). "Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes". Garibaldi Volcano Belt: Mount Meager Volcanic Field. Natural Resources Canada: 18.
- ^ Hickson, Catherine (2008-02-26). "Volcanoes of Canada". Monitoring Volcanoes. Natural Resources Canada: 108.
- ^ Hickson, Catherine (2008-02-26). "Volcanoes of Canada". Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan (IVENP). Natural Resources Canada: 110.