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Canadian identity refers to the unique culture, characteristics and condition of being Canadian, as well as the many symbols and expressions that set

In defining a Canadian identity, some distinctive characteristics that have been emphasized are:

1. The bicultural nature of Canada; the important ways in which English–French and Protestant-Catholic relations have shaped the Canadian experience since the 1760s.^[9]
2. Canada's distinctive historical experience in resisting revolution and republicanism (in contrast to the United States) leading to a lesser societal emphasis on individualism and more support for
   health care system.^[10]
3. The relationship to the
   British legal system, the toryism associated with the Loyalists, and the pre-1960 French Canadians have given Canada its ongoing collective commitment to "peace, order, and good government".^[10]
4. The social structure of multiple ethnic groups living amongst each other whilst maintaining their identities, producing a "cultural mosaic" as opposed to a "melting pot".^[11]
5. The influence of
   global superpower, have produced in the collective Canadian psyche what Northrop Frye has called the garrison mind or siege mentality, and what novelist Margaret Atwood has argued is the Canadian preoccupation with survival.^[12] For Herschel Hardin, because of the remarkable hold of the siege mentality and the concern with survival, Canada in its essentials is "a public enterprise country." According to Hardin, the "fundamental mode of Canadian life" has always been, "the un-American mechanism of redistribution as opposed to the mystic American mechanism of market rule." Most Canadians, in other words, whether on the right or left in politics, expect their governments to be actively involved in the economic and social life of the nation.^[13]

Introduction

Canada's large geographic size, the presence and survival of a significant number of indigenous peoples, the conquest of one European linguistic population by another, and relatively open

The indigenous peoples of Canada are divided among a large number of different ethnolinguistic groups, including the

Although English settlement began in

The

For its part, the identity of English speaking Canada was profoundly influenced by another pivotal historic event, the American Revolution. American colonists who remained loyal to the Crown and who actively supported the British during the Revolution saw their lands and goods confiscated by the new republic at the end of the war. Some 60,000 people, known in Canada as

Canada was twice invaded by armed forces from the United States during the American Revolution and the War of 1812. The first invasion occurred in 1775, and succeeded in capturing Montreal and other towns in Quebec before being repelled at Quebec City by a combination of British troops and local militiamen. During this invasion, the French-speaking Canadiens assisted both the invaders from the United Colonies and the defending British. The War of 1812 also saw the invasion of American forces into what was then Upper and Lower Canada, and important British victories at Queenston Heights, Lundy's Lane and Crysler's Farm. The British were assisted again by local militia, this time not only the Canadiens, but also the descendants of the Loyalists who had arrived barely a generation earlier. The Americans however captured control of Lake Erie, cutting off what is today western Ontario; they killed Tecumseh and dealt the Indian allies a decisive defeat from which they never recovered. The War of 1812 has been called "in many respects a war of independence for Canada".^[21]

The years following the War of 1812 were marked by heavy immigration from Great Britain to the Canadas and, to a lesser degree, the Maritime Provinces, adding new British elements (English, Scottish and Protestant Irish) to the pre-existing English-speaking populations. During the same period immigration of

The merger of the two

The

The settlement of the west also brought to the fore the tensions between the English and French-speaking populations of Canada. The Red River Rebellion, led by Louis Riel, sought to defend the interests of French-speaking Métis against English-speaking Protestant settlers from Ontario. The controversial execution of Thomas Scott, a Protestant from Ontario, on Riel's orders and the furor that followed divided the new dominion along linguistic and religious lines. While Manitoba was created as a bilingual province in 1870 as a solution to the issue, the tensions remained, and would surface again in the North-West Rebellion in the 1880s, when Riel led another rebellion against Ottawa.

From the mid to late 19th century Canada had a policy of assisting immigrants from Europe, including city people and an estimated 100,000 unwanted "

The main crisis regarding Canadian identity came in

During this period, World War I helped to establish a separate Canadian identity among Anglophoners, especially through the military experiences of the Battle of Vimy Ridge and the Battle of Passchendaele and the intense homefront debates on patriotism.^[31] (A similar crisis, though much less intense, erupted in World War II.)

In the 1920s, the Dominion of Canada achieved greater independence from Britain, notably in the Statute of Westminster in 1931. It remained part of the larger Commonwealth but played an independent role in the League of Nations. As Canada became increasingly independent and sovereign, its primary foreign relationship and point of reference gradually moved to the United States, the superpower with whom it shared a long border and major economic, social and cultural relationships.

The Statute of Westminster also gave Canada

As for the role of history in national identity, the books of Pierre Berton and television series like Canada: A People's History have done much to spark the popular interest of Canadians in their history. Some commentators, such as Cohen, criticize the overall lack of attention paid by Canadians to their own history, noting a disturbing trend to ignore the broad history in favour of narrow focus on specific regions or groups.

It isn't just the schools, the museums and the government that fail us. It is also the professional historians, their books and periodicals. As J.L. Granatstein and Michael Bliss have argued, academic historians in Canada have stopped writing political and national history. They prefer to write labour history, women's history, ethnic history, and regional history, among others, often freighted with a sense of grievance or victimhood. This kind of history has its place, of course, but our history has become so specialized, so segmented, and so narrow that we are missing the national story in a country that has one and needs to hear it.^[32]

Much of the debate over contemporary Canadian identity is argued in political terms, and defines Canada as a country defined by its government policies, which are thought to reflect deeper cultural values. To the political philosopher Charles Blattberg, Canada should be conceived as a civic or political community, a community of citizens, one that contains many other kinds of communities within it. These include not only communities of ethnic, regional, religious, civic (the provincial and municipal governments) and civil associational sorts, but also national communities. Blattberg thus sees Canada as a multinational country and so asserts that it contains a number of nations within it. Aside from the various aboriginal First Nations, there is also the nation of francophone Quebecers, that of the anglophones who identify with English Canadian culture, and perhaps that of the Acadians.^[33]

In keeping with this, it is often asserted that Canadian government policies such as

In a poll that asked what institutions made Canada feel most proud about their country, number one was health care, number two was the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, and number three was peacekeeping.^[36] In a CBC contest to name "The Greatest Canadian", the three highest ranking in descending order were the social democratic politician and father of medicare Tommy Douglas, the legendary cancer activist Terry Fox, and the Liberal prime minister Pierre Trudeau, responsible for instituting Canada's official policies of bilingualism and multiculturalism, which suggested that their voters valued left-of-centre political leanings and community involvement.

Most of Canada's recent

Uniformity is neither desirable nor possible in a country the size of Canada. We should not even be able to agree upon the kind of Canadian to choose as a model, let alone persuade most people to emulate it. There are few policies potentially more disastrous for Canada than to tell all Canadians that they must be alike. There is no such thing as a model or ideal Canadian. What could be more absurd than the concept of an "all-Canadian" boy or girl? A society which emphasizes uniformity is one which creates intolerance and hate.[38]

In 2013, more than 90 percent of polled Canadians believed that the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the national flag were the top symbols of Canadian identity.^[39] As Professor Alan Cairns noted about the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , "the initial federal government premise was on developing a pan-Canadian identity"'.^[40] Pierre Trudeau himself later wrote in his Memoirs (1993) that "Canada itself" could now be defined as a "society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental values based upon freedom", and that all Canadians could identify with the values of liberty and equality.^[41]

Migration to Canada

Canada was the home for 'American' British

In response to a declining birth rate, Canada has increased the per capita immigration rate to one of the highest in the world.

Outsider perceptions

A very common expression of Canadian identity is to ridicule American ignorance of things Canadian.^[42]

During his years with This Hour Has 22 Minutes, comic Rick Mercer produced a recurring segment, Talking to Americans. Petty says, the segment "was extraordinarily popular and was initiated by viewer demand."^[42] Mercer would pose as a journalist in an American city and ask passers-by for their opinions on a fabricated Canadian news story. Some of the "stories" for which he solicited comment included the legalization of staplers, the coronation of King Svend, the border dispute between Quebec and Chechnya, the campaign against the Toronto Polar Bear Hunt, and the reconstruction of the historic "Peter Mann's Bridge". During the 2000 election in the United States, Mercer successfully staged a Talking to Americans segment in which presidential candidate George W. Bush gratefully accepted news of his endorsement by Canadian Prime Minister "Jean Poutine".^[43][44]

While Canadians may dismiss comments that they do not find appealing or stereotypes that are patently ridiculous, Andrew Cohen believes that there is a value to considering what foreigners have to say: "Looking at Canadians through the eyes of foreigners, we get a sense of how they see us. They say so much about us: that we are nice, hospitable, modest, blind to our achievements. That we are obedient, conservative, deferential, colonial and complex, particularly so. That we are fractious, envious, geographically impossible and politically improbable."^[45] Cohen refers in particular to the analyses of the French historian André Siegfried,^[46] the Irish born journalist and novelist Brian Moore^[47] or the Canadian-born American journalist Andrew H. Malcolm.^[48]

French Canadians and identity in English Canada

The Canadian philosopher and writer John Ralston Saul has expressed the view that the French fact in Canada is central to Canadian, and particularly to English Canadian identity:

It cannot be repeated enough that Quebec and, more precisely, francophone Canada is at the very heart of the Canadian mythology. I don't mean that it alone constitutes the heart, which is after all a complex place. But it is at the heart and no multiple set of bypass operations could rescue that mythology if Quebec were to leave. Separation is therefore a threat of death to anglophone Canada's whole sense of itself, of its self-respect, of its role as a constituent part of a nation, of the nature of the relationship between citizens."^[49]

Many Canadians believe that the relationship between the English and French languages is a central or defining aspect of the Canadian experience. Canada's Official Languages Commissioner (the federal government official charged with monitoring the two languages) has stated, "[I]n the same way that race is at the core of what it means to be American and at the core of an American experience and class is at the core of British experience, I think that language is at the core of Canadian experience."^[50]

Aboriginal Canadians and Canadian identity

Vancouver Airport

.

War of 1812

The War of 1812 is often celebrated in Ontario as a British victory for what would become Canada in 1867. The Canadian government spent $28 million on three years of bicentennial events, exhibits, historic sites, re-enactments, and a new national monument.^[55] The official goal was to make Canadians aware that:

• Canada would not exist had the American invasion of 1812–15 been successful.
• The end of the war laid the foundation for Confederation and the emergence of Canada as a free and independent nation.
• Under the Crown, Canada’s society retained its linguistic and ethnic diversity, in contrast to the greater conformity demanded by the American Republic.^[56]

In a 2012 poll, 25% of all Canadians ranked their victory in the War of 1812 as the second most important part of their identity after free health care (53%).^[57]

Canadian historians in recent decades look at the war as a defeat for the First Nations of Canada, and also for the merchants of Montreal (who lost the fur trade of the Michigan-Minnesota area).^[58] The British had a long-standing goal of building a pro-British Indian barrier state in the American Midwest.^[59][60] They demanded a neutral Indian state at the peace conference in 1814 but failed to gain any of it because they had lost control of the region in the Battle of Lake Erie and the Battle of the Thames in 1813, where Tecumseh was killed. The British then abandoned their Indian allies south of the lakes. The royal elite of (what is now) Ontario gained much more power in the aftermath and used that power to repel the idea of American republicanism, especially in the areas of southern Ontario settled by American immigrants. Many of those settlers returned to the states and were replaced by immigrants from Britain who were imperial-minded.^[61] W. L. Morton says the war was a "stalemate" but the Americans "did win the peace negotiations."^[62] Arthur Ray says the war made "matters worse for the native people" as they lost military and political power.^[63] Bumsted says the war was a stalemate, but regarding the Indians "was a victory for the American expansionists."^[64] Thompson and Randall say "the War of 1812's real losers were the Native peoples who had fought as Britain's ally."^[65] On the other hand, the "1812 Great Canadian Victory Party will bring the War of 1812...to life," promised the sponsors of a festival in Toronto in November 2009.^[66]

Multiculturalism and identity

Further information: Multiculturalism in Canada

Multiculturalism and inter-ethnic relations in Canada is relaxed and tolerant, allowing ethnic or linguistic particularism to exist unquestioned. In metropolitan areas such as Toronto and Vancouver, there is often a strong sense that multiculturalism is a normal and respectable expression of being Canadian. Canada is also considered a mosaic because of the multi-culturalism.

Supporters of Canadian multiculturalism will also argue that cultural appreciation of ethnic and religious diversity promotes a greater willingness to tolerate political differences, and multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity. Richard Gwyn has suggested that "tolerance" has replaced "loyalty" as the touchstone of Canadian identity.^[67]

On the other hand, critics of Canada's multiculturalism argue that the country's "timid" attitude towards the assimilation of immigrants has actually weakened, not strengthened Canada's national identity through factionalism. Columnist and author Richard Gwyn expresses concern that Canada's sense of self may become so weak that it might vanish altogether.^[68] The indulgent attitude taken towards cultural differences is perhaps a side effect of the vexed histories of French-English and Aboriginal-settler relations, which have created a need for a civic national identity, as opposed to one based on some homogenous cultural ideal.^{[citation needed]} On the other hand, concerns have been raised of the danger that "ethnic nationalism will trump civic nationalism"^[69] and that Canada will leap "from colony to post-national cosmopolitan" without giving Canadians a fair chance of ever finding a centre of gravity or certain sense of Canadian identity.^[70][71]

For John Ralston Saul, Canada's approach of not insisting on a single national mythology or identity is not necessarily a sign of the country's weakness, but rather its greatest success,^[72] signalling a rejection of or evolution from the European mono-cultural concept of a national identity to something far more "soft" and less complex:

The essential characteristic of the Canadian public mythology is its complexity. To the extent that it denies the illusion of simplicity, it is a reasonable facsimile of reality. That makes it a revolutionary reversal of the standard nation-state myth. To accept our reality—the myth of complexity—is to live out of sync with élites in other countries, particularly those in the business and academic communities.^[73]

In January 2007,

Secretary of State for Multiculturalism and Canadian Identity

.

The role of Canadian social policy and identity

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Critics of the idea of a fundamentally "liberal Canada" such as

New Democratic Party. Much of the energy of the early Canadian feminist movement occurred in Manitoba

.

By contrast, the Conservative provincial government of Alberta has frequently quarrelled with federal administrations perceived to be dominated by "eastern liberal elites."[74] Part of this is due to what Albertans feel were federal intrusions on provincial jurisdictions such as the National Energy Program and other attempts to 'interfere' with Albertan oil resources.

Distinctly Canadian

• In 1971, Peter Gzowski of CBC Radio's This Country in the Morning held a competition whose goal was to compose the conclusion to the phrase: "As Canadian as..." The winning entry was "... possible, under the circumstances." It was sent in to the program by Heather Scott.^[75]
• Pierre Berton, a Canadian journalist and novelist, has been attributed with the quote "A Canadian is someone who knows how to make love in a canoe without tipping it", although Berton himself denied that he ever actually said or wrote this.^[76]

See also

• Culture of Canada
• Canadian nationalism
• Canadian sovereignty
• Cultural cringe

References

1. ^ Saul,Reflections of a Siamese Twin p. 8.
2. ISBN 978-0-679-31476-9
   .
3. ^ The Environics Institute (2010). "Focus Canada (Final Report)" (PDF). Queen's University. p. 4 (PDF page 8). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 4, 2016. Retrieved December 12, 2015.
4. ^ "Exploring Canadian values" (PDF). Nanos Research. October 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 5, 2017. Retrieved February 1, 2017.
5. ^ "The Daily — Canadian identity, 2013". www.statcan.gc.ca. October 2015. Retrieved 2015-10-01.
6. ^ John Ralston Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin: Canada at the End of the 20th Century, Toronto: Viking Canada, 1997, p. 439
7. ^ Philip Resnick, The European Roots of Canadian Identity, Peterborough: Broadview Press Ltd, 2005 p. 63
8. ^ Roy McGregor, Canadians: A Portrait of a Country and Its People, Toronto: Viking Canada, 2007
9. ^ "Biculturalism", The Canadian Encyclopedia (2010) online
10. ^ ^{a b} Lipset (1990)
11. ^ Magocsi, (1999)
12. ^ Margaret Atwood, Survival: A Thematic Guide to Canadian Lieterature, Toronto: House of Anansi Press Limited, p. 32.
13. ^ The typology is based on George A. Rawlyk, "Politics, Religion, and the Canadian Experience: A Preliminary Probe," in Mark A. Noll, ed. Religion and American Politics: From the Colonial Period to the 1980s. 1990. pp 259-60.
14. ^ Baer, Grabb, and Johnston, "National character, regional culture, and the values of Canadians and Americans." (1993) p 13.
15. aboriginal peoples in Canada
    .
16. ^ Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin, p. 161
17. ^ Saul describes the event as "one of the most disturbing" of Canada's "real tragedies", Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin, p. 31
18. ^ Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin, p 32 quote: "The Ultramontanes took French Canada off a relatively normal track of political and social evolution...The infection of healthy nationalism with a sectarianism that can still be felt in the negative nationalists was one of their accomplishments.
19. ^ see MacGregor, Canadians, at p. 62
20. ^ Richard Gwyn, John A: The Man Who Made Us, 2007, Random House of Canada Ltd., p. 367
21. ^ Northrop Frye, Divisions on a Ground: Essays on Canadian Culture, 1982: House of Anansi Press, p. 65.
22. ^ See for example Susanna Moodie, Roughing It in the Bush, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart Limited, 1970, p. 31: quote: "British mothers of Canadian sons!—learn to feel for their country the same enthusiasm which fills your hearts when thinking of the glory of your own. Teach them to love Canada...make your children proud of the land of their birth."
23. ^ letter from George Brown, cited in Richard Gwyn, John A: The Man Who Made Us, p. 143.
24. ^ Prior to Confederation, Queen Victoria remarked on "...the impossibility of our being able to hold Canada, but we must struggle for it; and by far the best solution would be to let it go as an independent kingdom under an English prince." quoted in Stacey, C.P. British Military Policy in the Era of Confederation, CHA Annual Report and Historical Papers 13 (1934), p. 25.
25. ^ Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin p. 32
26. St Peter Port
    , England.
27. ^ MacGregor, Canadians, p. 231
28. ^ "Pioneers Head West". CBC News.
29. ^ Civilization.ca - Advertising for immigrants to western Canada - Introduction
30. ^ J. L. Granatstein, Broken promises: A history of conscription in Canada (1977)
31. ^ Mackenzie (2005)
32. ^ Cohen, The Unfinished Canadian, p. 84
33. ^ Blattberg, Shall We Dance? A Patriotic Politics for Canada, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2003.
34. ^ CIHI p.119
35. ISBN 0-385-65985-7
    .
36. ^ The Environics Institute (2010). "Focus Canada (Final Report) - Queen's University" (PDF). Queen's University. p. 7. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 4, 2016. Retrieved December 12, 2015.
37. ^ Sandford F. Borins. The Language of the Skies: The Bilingual Air Traffic Control Conflict in Canada (1983) p. 244
38. ISBN 978-1-5255-0934-6
    . -Pierre Elliott Trudeau, as cited in The Essential Trudeau, ed. Ron Graham. (pp.16 – 20)
39. ^ "The Daily — Canadian identity, 2013". www.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2015-10-01.
40. CBC/Radio-Canada. Archived from the original
    on March 7, 2006. Retrieved March 17, 2006.
41. ISBN 978-0-7710-8588-8
    .
42. ^ ^{a b} Sheila Petty, et al. Canadian cultural poesis: essays on Canadian culture (2005) p. 58
43. ^ Jonathan A. Gray, et al. Satire TV: politics and comedy in the post-network era (2009) p 178
44. ^ John Herd Thompson and Stephen J. Randall, Canada and the United States: ambivalent allies (2002) p. 311
45. ^ Cohen p. 48
46. ^ André Siegfried, Canada: An International Power; New and Revised Edition, London: Jonathan Cape, 1949 quoted in Cohen, at pp. 35-37. Siegfried noted, among other things, the stark distinction between the identities of French and English-speaking Canadians.
47. ^ Brian Moore, Canada. New York: Time-Life Books, 1963, quoted in Cohen, The Unfinished Canadianat pp. 31-33, commenting on the lack of a hero culture in Canada: "There are no heroes in the wilderness. Only fools take risks."
48. ^ Andrew H. Malcolm, The Canadians: A Probing Yet Affectionate Look at the Land and the People Markham: Fitzhenry & Whiteside Ltd., 1985, quoted in Cohen, The Unfinished Canadian at pp. 44 to 47. "Canadians always seemed to be apologizing for something. It was so ingrained."
49. ^ Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin, p. 293
50. Hill Times
    , August 31, 2009, p. 14.
51. ^ Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin p. 88.
52. ^ Saul Reflections of a Siamese Twin at p. 91
53. ^ Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin p. 93
54. ^ Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin p. 41.
55. ^ Jasper Trautsch, "Review of Whose War of 1812? Competing Memories of the Anglo-American Conflict," Reviews in History (review no. 1387) 2013; Revise 2014, accessed: 10 December 2015
56. ^ Government of Canada, "The War of 1812, Historical Overview, Did You Know?" Archived 2015-11-20 at the Wayback Machine
57. ^ Trautsch, "Review of Whose War of 1812? Competing Memories of the Anglo-American Conflict"
58. ^ "The Indians and the fur merchants of Montreal had lost in the end," says Randall White, Ontario: 1610-1985 p. 75
59. ^ Dwight L. Smith, "A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of a British Idea" Northwest Ohio Quarterly 1989 61(2-4): 46-63
60. ^ Francis M. Carroll (2001). A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the Canadian-American Boundary, 1783-1842. U of Toronto Press. p. 24.
61. ^ Fred Landon, Western Ontario and the American Frontier (1941) p. 44; see also Gerald M. Craig, Upper Canada: The Formative Years, 1784-1841 (1963)
62. ^ Morton, Kingdom of Canada 1969 pp 206-7
63. ^ Arthur Ray in Craig Brown ed. Illustrated History of Canada (2000) p 102.
64. ^ J. M. Bumsted, Peoples of Canada (2003) 1:244-45
65. ^ John Herd Thompson and Stephen J. Randall, Canada and the United States (2008) p. 23
66. ^ There is no mention of the historians in the announcement of "Great 1812 Canadian Victory Party"
67. ^ Gwyn, The Man Who Made Us What We Are, p. 365.
68. ^ Richard Gwyn, Nationalism Without Walls: The Unbearable Lightness of Being Canadian, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1996
69. ^ Cohen, The Unfinished Canadianp. 162
70. ^ Cohen, The Unfinished Canadian pp. 163-164
71. ^ See also: Resnick, quote: "But let us not make diversity a substitute for broader aspects of national identity or turn multiculturalism into a shibboleth because we are unwilling to reaffirm underlying values that make Canada what it has become. And those values, I repeat again, are largely European in their derivation, on both the English-speaking and French—speaking sides." at p. 64.
72. ^ Saul, p. 8.
73. ^ Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin, p. 9.
74. ^ Panizza 2005
75. ^ "On the origin of an aphorism", PETER GZOWSKI, 24 May 1996, The Globe and Mail, page A15
76. ^ "#AsCanadianAs 'making love in a canoe'? Not so fast". CBC News, June 21, 2013.

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• Resnick, Philip (2005). The European Roots Of Canadian Identity. Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Press.
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• Adams, Michael. Fire and Ice (2004)
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• ISBN 0-7735-2596-3
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• ISBN 1-55054-917-0
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  ISBN 978-1-55488-417-9
  . The Big Book of Canadian Trivia.
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• Will Ferguson. Why I Hate Canadians (2007), satire
• Fleras, Angie and Jean Leonard Elliot. Multiculturalism in Canada: The Challenge of Diversity 1992 .
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• Hurtig, Mel. The Vanishing Country: Is It Too Late to Save Canada? (2003), left-wing perspective
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• Moogk, Peter; La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada: a Cultural History (2000)
• Morra, Linda. "'Like Rain Drops Rolling Down New Paint': Chinese Immigrants and the Problem of National Identity in the Work of Emily Carr." American Review of Canadian Studies. Volume: 34. Issue: 3. 2004. pp 415+. online version
• Morton, W. I. The Canadian Identity (1968)
• Panizza, Francisco. Populism and the Mirror of Democracy(2005)
• Philip Resnick. The European Roots of Canadian Identity (2005)
• Peter Russell (ed.), Nationalism in Canada (1966)
• Joe Sawchuk. The Metis of Manitoba: Reformulation of an ethnic identity (1978)
• Mildred A Schwartz. Public opinion and Canadian identity (1967)
• Allan Smith. Canada - An American Nation?: Essays on Continentalism, Identity, and the Canadian Frame of Mind (1994)
• David M. Thomas, ed. Canada and the United States: Differences that Count (1990) Second Edition
• Wallin, Pamela "Current State, Future Directions: Canada - U.S. Relations" by Pamela Wallin (Canada’s Consul General to New York); April 28, 2003 Archived June 17, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
• William Watson, Globalization and the Meaning of Canadian Life (1998)
• Matthias Zimmer and Angelika E. Sauer. A Chorus of Different Voices: German-Canadian Identities(1998)
• Aleksandra Ziolkowska. Dreams and reality: Polish Canadian identities (1984)
• Нохрин И.М. Общественно-политическая мысль Канады и становление национального самосознания. — Huntsville: Altaspera Publishing & Literary Agency, 2012. — 232 pp. —
  ISBN 978-1-105-76379-3

Further reading

• Clift, Dominique, The Secret Kingdom: Interpretations of the Canadian Character. Toronto, Ont.: McClelland & Stewart, 1989.
  ISBN 0-7710-2161-5
• The European Roots of Canadian Identity

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Canada.

• Canadian Identity from David Spencer's Canadian Inukshuk
• pch.gc.ca
• Canadian Society @ Culture.ca
• Canadian Studies: A Guide to the Sources