History of Canada
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The history of Canada covers the period from the arrival of the Paleo-Indians to North America thousands of years ago to the present day. The lands encompassing present-day Canada have been inhabited for millennia by Indigenous peoples, with distinct trade networks, spiritual beliefs, and styles of social organization. Some of these older civilizations had long faded by the time of the first European arrivals and have been discovered through archeological investigations.
From the late 15th century, French and British expeditions explored, colonized, and fought over various places within North America in what constitutes present-day Canada. The colony of New France was claimed in 1534 with permanent settlements beginning in 1608. France ceded nearly all its North American possessions to the Great Britain in 1763 at the Treaty of Paris after the Seven Years' War. The now British Province of Quebec was divided into Upper and Lower Canada in 1791. The two provinces were united as the Province of Canada by the Act of Union 1840, which came into force in 1841. In 1867, the Province of Canada was joined with two other British colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia through Confederation, forming a self-governing entity. "Canada" was adopted as the legal name of the new country and the word "Dominion" was conferred as the country's title. Over the next eighty-two years, Canada expanded by incorporating other parts of British North America, finishing with Newfoundland and Labrador in 1949.
Although
Over centuries, elements of Indigenous, French, British and more recent immigrant customs have combined to form a Canadian culture that has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic, geographic and economic neighbour, the United States. Since the conclusion of the Second World War, Canada's strong support for multilateralism and internationalism has been closely related to its peacekeeping efforts.
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous societies
By 16,000 years ago the glacial melt allowed people to move by land south and east out of Beringia, and into Canada.[6] The Haida Gwaii islands, Old Crow Flats, and the Bluefish Caves contain some of the earliest Paleo-Indian archeological sites in Canada.[7][8][9] Ice Age hunter-gatherers of this period left lithic flake fluted stone tools and the remains of large butchered mammals.
The North American climate stabilized around 8000 BCE (10,000 years ago). Climatic conditions were similar to modern patterns; however, the receding
The
The
The
Speakers of
The Five Nations of the
On the
The
In the
European contact
Under
Based on the
Canada under French rule
French interest in the
In 1604, a
In 1608 Champlain founded what is now Quebec City, one of the earliest permanent settlements, which would become the capital of New France.[55] He took personal administration over the city and its affairs and sent out expeditions to explore the interior.[56] Champlain became the first known European to encounter Lake Champlain in 1609. By 1615, he had travelled by canoe up the Ottawa River through Lake Nipissing and Georgian Bay to the centre of Huron country near Lake Simcoe.[57] During these voyages, Champlain aided the Wendat (aka "Hurons") in their battles against the Iroquois Confederacy.[58] As a result, the Iroquois would become enemies of the French and be involved in multiple conflicts (known as the French and Iroquois Wars) until the signing of the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701.[59]
The English, led by
After Champlain's death in 1635, the
Although immigration rates to New France remained very low under direct French control,[70] most of the new arrivals were farmers, and the rate of population growth among the settlers themselves had been very high.[71] The women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who remained in France.[72] Yves Landry says, "Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time."[72] This was due to the natural abundance of meat, fish, and pure water; the good food conservation conditions during the winter; and an adequate wheat supply in most years.[72] The 1666 census of New France was conducted by France's intendant, Jean Talon, in the winter of 1665–1666. The census showed a population count of 3,215 Acadians and habitants (French-Canadian farmers) in the administrative districts of Acadia and Canada.[73] The census also revealed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women.[74]
Wars during the colonial era
By the early 1700s the
From 1670, through the Hudson's Bay Company, the English also laid claim to Hudson Bay and its drainage basin, known as Rupert's Land, establishing new trading posts and forts, while continuing to operate fishing settlements in Newfoundland.[80] French expansion along the Canadian canoe routes challenged the Hudson's Bay Company claims, and in 1686, Pierre Troyes led an overland expedition from Montreal to the shore of the bay, where they managed to capture a handful of outposts.[81] La Salle's explorations gave France a claim to the Mississippi River Valley, where fur trappers and a few settlers set up scattered forts and settlements.[82]
There were four
Louisbourg was intended to serve as a year-round military and naval base for France's remaining North American empire and to protect the entrance to the St. Lawrence River.
The British ordered the Acadians expelled from their lands in 1755 during the
Canada under British rule
As part of the terms of the
Following the Treaty of Paris,
American Revolution and the Loyalists
During the American Revolution, there was some sympathy for the American cause among the Acadians and the New Englanders in Nova Scotia.[99] Neither party joined the rebels, although several hundred individuals joined the revolutionary cause.[99][100] An invasion of Quebec by the Continental Army in 1775, with a goal to take Quebec from British control, was halted at the Battle of Quebec by Guy Carleton, with the assistance of local militias. The defeat of the British army during the Siege of Yorktown in October 1781 signalled the end of Great Britain's struggle to suppress the American Revolution.[101]
When the British
The signing of the
Canadian historians have had mixed views on the long-term impact of the American Revolution. Arthur Lower in the 1950s provided the long-standard historical interpretation that for English Canada the results were counter-revolutionary:
[English Canada] inherited, not the benefits, but the bitterness of the Revolution…. English Canada started its life with as powerful a nostalgic shove backward into the past as the Conquest had given to French Canada: two little peoples officially devoted to counter-revolution, to lost causes, to the tawdry ideals of a society of men and masters, and not to the self-reliant freedom alongside of them.[107]
Recently Michel Ducharme has agreed that Canada did indeed oppose "republican liberty", as exemplified by the United States and France. However, he says it did find a different path forward when it fought against British rulers after 1837 to secure "modern liberty". That form of liberty focused not on the virtues of citizens but on protecting their rights from infringement by the state.[108][109]
War of 1812
The
The War ended with no boundary changes thanks to the Treaty of Ghent of 1814, and the Rush–Bagot Treaty of 1817.[110] A demographic result was the shifting of the destination of American migration from Upper Canada to Ohio, Indiana and Michigan, without fear of Indigenous attacks.[110] After the war, supporters of Britain tried to repress the republicanism that was common among American immigrants to Canada.[110] The troubling memory of the war and the American invasions etched itself into the consciousness of Canadians as a distrust of the intentions of the United States towards the British presence in North America.[113]pp. 254–255
Rebellions and the Durham Report
The
In Lower Canada, a more substantial rebellion occurred against British rule. Both English- and French-Canadian rebels, sometimes using bases in the neutral United States, fought several skirmishes against the authorities. The towns of
The British government then sent
Between the
Pacific colonies
Spanish explorers had taken the lead in the
The
Confederation
The
Federation emerged from multiple impulses: the British wanted Canada to defend itself; the Maritimes needed railroad connections, which were promised in 1867;
Territorial expansion west (1867–1914)
Using the lure of the Canadian Pacific Railway, a transcontinental line that would unite the nation, Ottawa attracted support in the Maritimes and in British Columbia. In 1866, the Colony of British Columbia and the Colony of Vancouver Island merged into a single Colony of British Columbia. After Rupert's Land was transferred to Canada by Britain in 1870, connecting to the eastern provinces, British Columbia joined Canada in 1871. In 1873, Prince Edward Island joined. Newfoundland—which had no use for a transcontinental railway—voted no in 1869, and did not join Canada until 1949.[133]
In 1873,
As Canada expanded, the Canadian government rather than the British Crown negotiated treaties with the resident First Nations' peoples, beginning with
In the 1890s, legal experts codified a framework of criminal law, culminating in the Criminal Code, 1892.[144] This solidified the liberal ideal of "equality before the law" in a way that made an abstract principle into a tangible reality for every adult Canadian.[145] Wilfrid Laurier who served 1896–1911 as the Seventh Prime Minister of Canada felt Canada was on the verge of becoming a world power, and declared that the 20th century would "belong to Canada"[146]
The Alaska boundary dispute, simmering since the Alaska Purchase of 1867, became critical when gold was discovered in the Yukon during the late 1890s, with the U.S. controlling all the possible ports of entry. Canada argued its boundary included the port of Skagway. The dispute went to arbitration in 1903, but the British delegate sided with the Americans, angering Canadians who felt the British had betrayed Canadian interests to curry favour with the U.S.[147]
In 1905,
Laurier signed a reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would lower tariffs in both directions. Conservatives under Robert Borden denounced it, saying it would integrate Canada's economy into that of the U.S. and loosen ties with Britain. The Conservative party won the 1911 Canadian federal election.[150]
World Wars and Interwar Years (1914–1945)
First World War
The
Support for Great Britain during the First World War caused a major
Women's suffrage
When Canada was founded, women could not vote in federal elections. Women did have a local vote in some provinces, as in
The Military Voters Act of 1917 gave the vote to British women who were war widows or had sons or husbands serving overseas. Unionists Prime Minister Borden pledged himself during the 1917 campaign to equal suffrage for women. After his landslide victory, he introduced a bill in 1918 for extending the franchise to women. This passed without division but did not apply to Quebec provincial and municipal elections. The women of Quebec gained full suffrage in 1940. The first woman elected to Parliament was Agnes Macphail of Ontario in 1921.[161]
1920s
On the world stage
Convinced that Canada had proven itself on the battlefields of Europe, Prime Minister
In 1922 British Prime Minister David Lloyd George appealed repeatedly for Canadian support in the
In the 1920s, Canada set up a successful wheat marketing "pool" to keep prices high. Canada negotiated with the United States, Australia, and the Soviet Union to expand the pool, but the effort failed when the Great Depression caused distrust and low prices.[167]
With prohibition underway in the United States, smugglers bought large quantities of Canadian liquor. Both the Canadian distillers and the U.S. State Department put heavy pressure on the Customs and Excise Department to loosen or tighten border controls. Liquor interests paid off corrupt Canadian border officials until the U.S. finally ended prohibition in 1933.[168]
Domestic affairs
In 1921 to 1926, William Lyon Mackenzie King's Liberal government pursued a conservative domestic policy with the object of lowering wartime taxes and, especially, cooling wartime ethnic tensions, as well as defusing postwar labour conflicts. The Progressives refused to join the government but did help the Liberals defeat non-confidence motions. King faced a delicate balancing act of reducing tariffs enough to please the Prairie-based Progressives, but not too much to alienate his vital support in industrial Ontario and Quebec, which needed tariffs to compete with American imports. King and Conservative leader Arthur Meighen sparred constantly and bitterly in Commons debates.[169] The Progressives gradually weakened. Their effective and passionate leader, Thomas Crerar, resigned to return to his grain business, and was replaced by the more placid Robert Forke. The socialist reformer J. S. Woodsworth gradually gained influence and power among the Progressives, and he reached an accommodation with King on policy matters.[170]
In 1926 Prime Minister Mackenzie King advised the
Great Depression
Canada was hit hard by the worldwide Great Depression that began in 1929. Between 1929 and 1933, the gross national product dropped 40 per cent (compared to 37 per cent in the US). Unemployment reached 27 per cent at the depth of the Depression in 1933.[173] Many businesses closed, as corporate profits of $396 million in 1929 turned into losses of $98 million in 1933. Canadian exports shrank by 50% from 1929 to 1933. Construction all but stopped (down 82 per cent, 1929–33), and wholesale prices dropped 30%. Wheat prices plunged from 78c per bushel (1928 crop) to 29c in 1932.[173]
Urban unemployment nationwide was 19 per cent; Toronto's rate was 17 per cent, according to the census of 1931. Farmers who stayed on their farms were not considered unemployed.[174] By 1933, 30 per cent of the labour force was out of work, and one-fifth of the population became dependent on government assistance. Wages fell as did prices. The worst hit were areas dependent on primary industries such as farming, mining and logging, as prices fell and there were few alternative jobs. Most families had moderate losses and little hardship, though they too became pessimistic and their debts became heavier as prices fell. Some families saw most or all of their assets disappear and suffered severely.[175][176]
In 1930, in the first stage of the long depression, Prime Minister
In 1935, the Liberals used the slogan "King or Chaos" to win a landslide in the 1935 election.[181] Promising a much-desired trade treaty with the U.S., the Mackenzie King government passed the 1935 Reciprocal Trade Agreement. It marked the turning point in Canadian-American economic relations, reversing the disastrous trade war of 1930–31, lowering tariffs and yielding a dramatic increase in trade.[182]
The worst of the Depression had passed by 1935, as the Government of Canada launched relief programs such as the National Housing Act and the National Employment Commission. The
One political response was a highly restrictive immigration policy and a rise in nativism.[184]
Times were especially hard in western Canada, where a full recovery did not occur until the Second World War began in 1939. One response was the creation of new political parties such as the
Statute of Westminster
Following the
Second World War
Of a population of approximately 11.5 million, 1.1 million Canadians served in the armed forces in the Second World War.[187] Many thousands more served with the Canadian Merchant Navy.[188] In all, more than 45,000 died, and another 55,000 were wounded.[189][190] Building up the Royal Canadian Air Force was a high priority; it was kept separate from Britain's Royal Air Force. The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan Agreement, signed in December 1939, bound Canada, Britain, New Zealand, and Australia to a program that eventually trained half the airmen from those four nations in the Second World War.[191]
The
On the political side, Mackenzie King rejected any notion of a government of national unity.[194] The 1940 federal election was held as normally scheduled, producing another majority for the Liberals. The Conscription Crisis of 1944 greatly affected unity between French and English-speaking Canadians, though was not as politically intrusive as that of the First World War.[195] During the war, Canada became more closely linked to the U.S. The Americans took virtual control of
Post-war era (1945–1960)
Prosperity returned to Canada during the Second World War and continued in the following years, with the development of
The foreign policy of Canada during the Cold War was closely tied to that of the United States. Canada was a founding member of NATO (which Canada wanted to be a transatlantic economic and political union as well[203]). In 1950, Canada sent combat troops to Korea during the Korean War as part of the United Nations forces. The federal government's desire to assert its territorial claims in the Arctic during the Cold War manifested with the High Arctic relocation, in which Inuit were moved from Nunavik (the northern third of Quebec) to barren Cornwallis Island;[204] this project was later the subject of a long investigation by the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[205]
In 1956, the United Nations responded to the Suez Crisis by convening a United Nations Emergency Force to supervise the withdrawal of invading forces. The peacekeeping force was initially conceptualized by the Secretary of External Affairs and future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson.[206] Pearson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 for his work in establishing the peacekeeping operation.[206]
Throughout the mid-1950s, prime ministers
There were voices on both left and right that warned against being too close to the United States. Few Canadians listened before 1957. Instead, there was wide consensus on foreign and defence policies from 1948 to 1957. Bothwell, Drummond and English state:
- That support was remarkably uniform geographically and racially, both coast to coast and among French and English. From the CCF on the left to the Social Credit on the right, the political parties agreed that NATO was a good thing, and communism a bad thing, that a close association with Europe was desirable, and that the Commonwealth embodied a glorious past.[209]
However, the consensus did not last. By 1957 the Suez crisis alienated Canada from both Britain and France; politicians distrusted American leadership, businessmen questioned American financial investments; and intellectuals ridiculed the values of American television and Hollywood offerings that all Canadians watched. "Public support for Canada's foreign policy came unstuck. Foreign policy, from being a winning issue for the Liberals, was fast becoming a losing one."[209]
1960–1981
In the 1960s, the
In 1965, Canada adopted the
Legislative restrictions on
During his long tenure in the office (1968–1979, 1980–1984), Prime Minister
1982–2000
In 1981, the Canadian House of Commons and Senate passed a resolution requesting that the British Parliament enact a package of constitutional amendments which would end the last powers of the British Parliament to legislate for Canada and would create an entirely Canadian process for constitutional amendments. The resolution set out the text of the proposed
In addition to the enactment of a constitutional amending formula, the Constitution Act, 1982 enacted the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter is a constitutionally entrenched bill of rights which applies to both the federal government and the provincial governments, unlike the earlier Canadian Bill of Rights.[224] The patriation of the constitution was Trudeau's last major act as Prime Minister; he resigned in 1984.
On June 23, 1985, Air India Flight 182 was destroyed above the Atlantic Ocean by a bomb on board exploding; all 329 on board were killed, of whom 280 were Canadian citizens.[225] The Air India attack is the largest mass murder in Canadian history.[226]
The Progressive Conservative (PC) government of Brian Mulroney began efforts to gain Quebec's support for the Constitution Act, 1982 and end western alienation. In 1987, the Meech Lake Accord talks began between the provincial and federal governments, seeking constitutional changes favourable to Quebec.[227] The failure of the Meech Lake Accord resulted in the formation of a separatist party, Bloc Québécois.[228] The constitutional reform process under Prime Minister Mulroney culminated in the failure of the Charlottetown Accord which would have recognized Quebec as a "distinct society" but was rejected in 1992 by a narrow margin.[229]
Under Brian Mulroney,
On July 11, 1990, the
Following Mulroney's resignation as prime minister in 1993, Kim Campbell took office and became Canada's first female prime minister.[233] Campbell remained in office for only a few months: the 1993 election saw the collapse of the Progressive Conservative Party from government to two seats, while the Quebec-based sovereigntist Bloc Québécois became the official opposition.[234] Prime Minister Jean Chrétien of the Liberals took office in November 1993 with a majority government and was re-elected with further majorities during the 1997 and 2000 elections.[235]
In 1995, the government of Quebec held a
2001–present
Environmental issues increased in importance in Canada during the late 90s, resulting in the signing of the
Canada became the fourth country in the world and the first country in the Americas to legalize same-sex marriage nationwide with the enactment of the Civil Marriage Act in 2005.[238] Court decisions, starting in 2003, had already legalized same-sex marriage in eight out of ten provinces and one of three territories. Before the passage of the act, more than 3,000 same-sex couples had married in these areas.[239]
The
Under Harper, Canada and the United States continued to integrate state and provincial agencies to strengthen security along the
In 2008, the Government of Canada formally apologized to the indigenous peoples of Canada for the residential school system and the damage it caused.[244] The government set up the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada that year to document the damage caused by the residential school system and the reconciliation needed to proceed into the future. It provided a "call to action" report in 2015.[245]
On October 19, 2015, Stephen Harper's Conservatives were defeated by a newly resurgent Liberal party under the leadership of Justin Trudeau and which had been reduced to third-party status in the 2011 elections.[246]
Multiculturalism (cultural and ethnic diversity) has been emphasized in recent decades. Ambrose and Mudde conclude that: "Canada's unique multiculturalism policy ... which is based on a combination of selective immigration, comprehensive integration, and strong state repression of dissent on these policies. This unique blend of policies has led to a relatively low level of opposition to multiculturalism".[247][248]
From January 2020 to May 2022, Canada was greatly impacted by COVID-19 pandemic,[249] which caused over 40,000 deaths in the country, the third highest mortality toll in North America (behind the United States and Mexico).[250]
Historiography
- The Conquest has remained a difficult subject for French-Canadian historians because it can be viewed either as economically and ideologically disastrous or as a providential intervention to enable Canadians to maintain their language and religion under British rule. For virtually all Anglophone historians it was a victory for British military, political, and economic superiority which would eventually only benefit the conquered.[251]
Historians of the 1950s tried to explain the economic inferiority of the French Canadians by arguing that the Conquest:
destroyed an integral society and decapitated the commercial class; leadership of the conquered people fell to the Church; and, because commercial activity came to be monopolized by British merchants, national survival concentrated on agriculture.[252]
At the other pole, are those Francophone historians who see the positive benefit of enabling the preservation of language, religion, and traditional customs under British rule. French-Canadian debates have escalated since the 1960s, as the Conquest is seen as a pivotal moment in the history of Quebec's nationalism. Historian Jocelyn Létourneau suggested in the 21st century, "1759 does not belong primarily to a past that we might wish to study and understand, but, rather, to a present and a future that we might wish to shape and control."[253]
Anglophone historians, on the other hand, portray the Conquest as a victory for British military, political and economic superiority that was a permanent benefit to the French.[254]
Allan Greer argues that Whig history was once the dominant style of scholars. He says the:
- interpretive schemes that dominated Canadian historical writing through the middle decades of the twentieth century were built on the assumption that history had a discernible direction and flow. Canada was moving towards a goal in the nineteenth century; whether this endpoint was the construction of a transcontinental, commercial, and political union, the development of parliamentary government, or the preservation and resurrection of French Canada, it was certainly a Good Thing. Thus the rebels of 1837 were quite literally on the wrong track. They lost because they had to lose; they were not simply overwhelmed by superior force, they were justly chastised by the God of History.[255]
See also
- National historic significance
- Events of National Historic Significance
- National Historic Sites of Canada
- Persons of National Historic Significance
- History by topic
- Constitutional history of Canada
- Economic history of Canada
- History of Canadian newspapers
- History of Canadian sports
- History of cities in Canada
- History of education in Canada
- History of medicine in Canada
- History of rail transport in Canada
- Social history of Canada
- Orange Order in Canada
- Anti-Quebec sentiment
- Academia
- Canadian Journal of History
- Canadian Historical Review
- Journal of Canadian Studies;:Media
- Heritage Minutes
- History Trek, Canadian History web portal designed for children
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Further reading
- For an annotated bibliography and evaluation of major books, see Canada: A Reader's Guide, (2nd ed., 2000) by J. André Senécal, online Archived November 28, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, 91pp.
- Black, Conrad. Rise to Greatness: The History of Canada From the Vikings to the Present (2014), 1120pp excerpt
- Brown, Craig, ed. Illustrated History of Canada (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2012), Chapters by experts
- Bumsted, J.M. The Peoples of Canada: A Pre-Confederation History; The Peoples of Canada: A Post-Confederation History (2 vol. 2014), University textbook
- Chronicles of Canada Series (32 vol. 1915–1916) edited by G. M. Wrong and H. H. Langton online detailed popular history
- Conrad, Margaret, Alvin Finkel and Donald Fyson. Canada: A History (Toronto: Pearson, 2012)
- Crowley, Terence Allan; Crowley, Terry; Murphy, Rae (1993). The Essentials of Canadian History: Pre-colonization to 1867—the Beginning of a Nation. Research & Education Assoc. ISBN 978-0-7386-7205-2.
- Felske, Lorry William; Rasporich, Beverly Jean (2004). Challenging Frontiers: the Canadian West. University of Calgary Press. ISBN 978-1-55238-140-3.
- Granatstein, J. L., and Dean F. Oliver, eds. The Oxford Companion to Canadian Military History, (2011) online review.
- Francis, R. D.; Jones, Richard; Smith, Donald B. (2009). Journeys: A History of Canada. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.
- Lower, Arthur R. M. (1958). Canadians in the Making: A Social History of Canada. Longmans, Green.
- McNaught, Kenneth. The Penguin History of Canada (Penguin books, 1988)
- Morton, Desmond (2001). A short history of Canada. McClelland & Stewart Limited. ISBN 978-0-7710-6509-5.
- Morton, Desmond (1999). A Military History of Canada: from Champlain to Kosovo. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 9780771065149.
- Norrie, Kenneth, Douglas Owram and J.C. Herbert Emery. (2002) A History of the Canadian Economy (4th ed. 2007)
- Riendeau, Roger E. (2007). A Brief History of Canada. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-0822-3.
- Stacey, C. P. Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada 1939–1945 (1970), the standard scholarly history of WWII policies; online free
- Scholarly article collections
- Bumsted, J. M. and Len Keffert, eds. Interpreting Canada's Past (2 vol. 2011)
- Conrad, Margaret and Alvin Finkel, eds. Nation and Society: Readings in Pre-Confederation Canadian History; Nation and Society: Readings in Post-Confederation Canadian History (2nd ed. 2008)
- Francis, R. Douglas and Donald B Smith, eds. Readings in Canadian History (7th ed. 2006)
- Primary sources and statistics
- Bliss, J.W.M. Canadian history in documents, 1763–1966 (1966), 390pp online free
- Crowe, Harry S. et al. eds A Source-Book of Canadian History: Selected Documents and Personal Papers (1964) 508pp online Archived June 12, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
- Kennedy, W.P.M., ed. (1918). Documents of the Canadian Constitution, 1759–1915. Oxford UP.; 707pp
- Reid, J.H. Stewart; et al., eds. (1964). A Source-book of Canadian History: Selected Documents and Personal Papers. Longmans Canada. Archived from the original on November 2, 2007. Retrieved August 29, 2017.; 484pp; primary sources on more than 200 topics
- Talman, James J. and Louis L. Snyder, eds. Basic Documents in Canadian History (1959) online Archived June 12, 2018, at the Wayback Machine 192 pp
- Thorner, Thomas ed. "A few acres of snow" : documents in pre-confederation Canadian history (2nd ed. 2003) online free to borrow
- Thorner, Thomas ed. A country nourished on self-doubt : documents in post-confederation Canadian history (2nd ed 2003) online free
- Urquhart, Malcolm Charles and F.H. Leacy, eds. Historical statistics of Canada (2nd ed. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1983). 800 p. ISBN 0-660-11259-0
- Historiography
- Berger, Carl. Writing Canadian History: Aspects of English Canadian Historical Writing since 1900 (2nd ed. 1986), 364pp evaluates the work of most of the leading 20th century historians of Canada.
- Careless, J. M. S. "Canadian Nationalism — Immature or Obsolete?" Report of the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Historical Association / Rapports annuels de la Société historique du Canada (1954) 33#1 pp: 12–19. online
- McKercher, Asa, and Philip Van Huizen, eds. Undiplomatic History: The New Study of Canada and the World (2019) excerpt.
- Muise D. A. ed. A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: 1, Beginnings to Confederation (1982); (1982) Topical articles by leading scholars
- Granatstein J.L. and Paul Stevens, ed. A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: vol 2: Confederation to the present (1982), Topical articles by leading scholars
- Taylor, Martin Brook; Owram, Douglas (1994). Canadian History: A Reader's Guide: Beginnings to Confederation. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6826-2.; essays by experts evaluate the scholarly literature
- Taylor, Martin Brook; Owram, Douglas (1994). Canadian history. 2. Confederation to the present. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-7676-2.; essays by experts evaluate the scholarly literature
- Taylor, Martin Brook; Owram, Douglas (1994). Canadian history. 2. Confederation to the present. University of Toronto Press.
- Rich, E. E. "Canadian History." Historical Journal 14#4 (1971): 827–52. online.
External links
- The Canadian Encyclopedia
- National Historic Sites of Canada (archived 5 June 2011)
- The Dictionary of Canadian Biography
- Canadian Studies – Guide to the Sources (archived 21 August 2014)
- The Quebec History encyclopedia by Marianopolis College
- History of Canada at Curlie
- The Historica-Dominion Institute, includes Heritage Minutes (archived 1 January 2012)
- H-CANADA, daily academic discussion email list
- Canadian History & Knowledge Archived August 31, 2018, at the Wayback Machine – Association for Canadian Studies
- Baldwin Collection of Canadiana at Toronto Public Library