Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve
Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve | |
---|---|
IUCN category V (protected landscape/seascape) | |
Location | South Central Idaho, United States |
Nearest city | Arco (east) Carey (west) |
Coordinates | 43°27′42″N 113°33′46″W / 43.46167°N 113.56271°W |
Area | 753,000 acres (3,050 km2)[1] |
Established | Monument: May 2, 1924 Preserve: August 21, 2002 | ,
Visitors | 250,872 (in 2020)[2] |
Governing body | National Park Service and Bureau of Land Management |
Website | Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve |
Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve is a U.S. national monument and national preserve in the Snake River Plain in central Idaho. It is along US 20 (concurrent with US 93 and US 26), between the small towns of Arco and Carey, at an average elevation of 5,900 feet (1,800 m) above sea level.
The Monument was established on May 2, 1924.[3] In November 2000, a presidential proclamation by President Clinton greatly expanded the Monument area. The 410,000-acre National Park Service portions of the expanded Monument were designated as Craters of the Moon National Preserve in August 2002.[1] It spreads across Blaine, Butte, Lincoln, Minidoka, and Power counties. The area is managed cooperatively by the National Park Service and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM).[4]
The Monument and Preserve encompass three major lava fields and about 400 square miles (1,000 km2) of sagebrush steppe grasslands to cover a total area of 1,117 square miles (2,893 km2). The Monument alone covers 343,000 acres (139,000 ha).[5] All three lava fields lie along the Great Rift of Idaho, with some of the best examples of open rift cracks in the world, including the deepest known on Earth at 800 feet (240 m). There are excellent examples of almost every variety of basaltic lava, as well as tree molds (cavities left by lava-incinerated trees), lava tubes (a type of cave), and many other volcanic features.[6]
Geography and geologic setting
Craters of the Moon is in south-central Idaho, midway between
cuts through the northwestern part of the monument and provides access to it. However, the rugged landscape of the monument itself remains remote and undeveloped, with only one paved road across the northern end.The Craters of the Moon Lava Field spreads across 618 square miles (1,601 km2) and is the largest mostly Holocene-aged basaltic lava field in the contiguous United States.[7] The Monument and Preserve contain more than 25 volcanic cones, including outstanding examples of spatter cones.[8] The 60 distinct solidified lava flows that form the Craters of the Moon Lava Field range in age from 15,000 to just 2,000 years.[9] The Kings Bowl and Wapi lava fields, both about 2,200 years old, are part of the National Preserve.
This lava field is the largest of several large beds of lava that erupted from the 53-mile (85 km) south-east to north-west trending Great Rift volcanic zone,[10] a line of weakness in the Earth's crust. Together with fields from other fissures they make up the Lava Beds of Idaho, which in turn are in the much larger Snake River Plain volcanic province. The Great Rift extends across almost the entire Snake River Plain.
Elevation at the visitor center is 5,900 feet (1,800 m) above sea level.[11]
Total average
Climate
Climate data for Craters of the Moon, Idaho, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1958–present | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °F (°C) | 51 (11) |
60 (16) |
68 (20) |
83 (28) |
90 (32) |
100 (38) |
101 (38) |
100 (38) |
96 (36) |
86 (30) |
67 (19) |
52 (11) |
101 (38) |
Mean maximum °F (°C) | 40.4 (4.7) |
45.0 (7.2) |
57.1 (13.9) |
70.6 (21.4) |
80.3 (26.8) |
88.6 (31.4) |
95.2 (35.1) |
93.5 (34.2) |
87.0 (30.6) |
74.0 (23.3) |
57.1 (13.9) |
42.4 (5.8) |
95.9 (35.5) |
Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 24.8 (−4.0) |
29.1 (−1.6) |
39.0 (3.9) |
50.2 (10.1) |
60.7 (15.9) |
70.7 (21.5) |
81.5 (27.5) |
79.8 (26.6) |
69.3 (20.7) |
53.6 (12.0) |
36.2 (2.3) |
24.1 (−4.4) |
51.6 (10.9) |
Daily mean °F (°C) | 16.0 (−8.9) |
19.5 (−6.9) |
28.6 (−1.9) |
37.8 (3.2) |
46.8 (8.2) |
55.6 (13.1) |
65.4 (18.6) |
63.4 (17.4) |
53.9 (12.2) |
40.3 (4.6) |
26.0 (−3.3) |
16.0 (−8.9) |
39.1 (4.0) |
Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 7.1 (−13.8) |
9.9 (−12.3) |
18.3 (−7.6) |
25.5 (−3.6) |
33.0 (0.6) |
40.6 (4.8) |
49.3 (9.6) |
47.0 (8.3) |
38.4 (3.6) |
27.1 (−2.7) |
15.8 (−9.0) |
7.8 (−13.4) |
26.7 (−3.0) |
Mean minimum °F (°C) | −5.3 (−20.7) |
−1.9 (−18.8) |
7.7 (−13.5) |
17.4 (−8.1) |
25.0 (−3.9) |
31.7 (−0.2) |
42.2 (5.7) |
40.0 (4.4) |
29.8 (−1.2) |
16.1 (−8.8) |
4.5 (−15.3) |
−5.1 (−20.6) |
−10.1 (−23.4) |
Record low °F (°C) | −24 (−31) |
−19 (−28) |
−8 (−22) |
6 (−14) |
15 (−9) |
24 (−4) |
30 (−1) |
30 (−1) |
16 (−9) |
−3 (−19) |
−13 (−25) |
−37 (−38) |
−37 (−38) |
Average precipitation inches (mm) | 1.96 (50) |
1.45 (37) |
1.13 (29) |
1.13 (29) |
1.62 (41) |
1.21 (31) |
0.43 (11) |
0.65 (17) |
0.83 (21) |
1.29 (33) |
1.12 (28) |
2.19 (56) |
15.01 (383) |
Average snowfall inches (cm) | 20.8 (53) |
15.3 (39) |
5.4 (14) |
4.6 (12) |
0.6 (1.5) |
0.1 (0.25) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.1 (0.25) |
2.0 (5.1) |
8.5 (22) |
22.9 (58) |
80.3 (205.1) |
Average extreme snow depth inches (cm) | 23.9 (61) |
26.5 (67) |
22.1 (56) |
5.8 (15) |
0.2 (0.51) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
1.1 (2.8) |
5.5 (14) |
15.5 (39) |
29.4 (75) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 9.1 | 7.4 | 7.0 | 7.9 | 9.2 | 7.2 | 3.6 | 4.5 | 4.7 | 6.4 | 7.3 | 10.1 | 84.4 |
Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) | 7.9 | 6.6 | 3.5 | 1.8 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.9 | 4.4 | 8.8 | 34.7 |
Source 1: NOAA[14] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: National Weather Service[15] |
History
Native American history
Goodale's Cutoff
Pioneers traveling in wagon trains on the Oregon Trail in the 1850s and 1860s followed an alternative route in the area that used old Indian trails that skirted the lava flows. This alternative route was later named Goodale's Cutoff and part of it is in the northern part of the monument.[20] The cutoff was created to reduce the possibility of ambush by Shoshone warriors along the Snake River such as the one that occurred at Massacre Rocks, which today is memorialized in Idaho's Massacre Rocks State Park.[21]
After gold was discovered in the Salmon River area of Idaho, a group of immigrants persuaded an Illinois-born trapper and trader named Tim Goodale to lead them through the cutoff. A large wagon train left in July 1862 and met up with more wagons at Craters of the Moon Lava Field.[20] Numbering 795 men and 300 women and children, the unusually large group was relatively unmolested during its journey and named the cutoff for their guide.[22] Improvements to the cutoff such as adding a ferry to cross the Snake River made it into a popular alternative route of the Oregon Trail.[22]
Exploration and early study
In 1879, two Arco cattlemen named Arthur Ferris and J.W. Powell became the first known European-Americans to explore the lava fields.[24] They were investigating its possible use for grazing and watering cattle but found the area to be unsuitable and left.
In 1901 and 1903, Israel Russell became the first geologist to study this area while surveying it for the United States Geological Survey (USGS).[16] In 1910, Samuel Paisley continued Russell's work and later would become the monument's first custodian. Others followed and in time much of the mystery surrounding this and the other Lava Beds of Idaho was lifted.
The few European settlers who visited the area in the 19th century created local legends that it looked like the surface of the Moon. Geologist Harold T. Stearns coined the name "Craters of the Moon" in 1923 while trying to convince the National Park Service to recommend protection of the area in a national monument.[25]
Limbert's expedition
Robert Limbert, a sometime taxidermist, tanner, and furrier from Boise, explored the area, which he described as "practically unknown and unexplored ..." in the 1920s after hearing stories from fur trappers about "strange things they had seen while ranging the region".
Limbert wrote:
I had made two trips into the northern end, covering practically the same region as that traversed by a Geological Survey party in 1901. My first was a hiking and camping trip with Ad Santel (the wrestler), Dr. Dresser, and Albert Jones; the second was with Wes Watson and Era Martin (ranchers living about four miles [6 km] from the northern edge). The peculiar features seen on those trips led me to take a third across the region in the hope that even more interesting phenomena might be encountered.[26]
Limbert set out on his third and most ambitious foray to the area in May 1920, this time with Walter Cole and an Airedale Terrier to accompany him.[26][27] Starting from Minidoka, Idaho, they explored what is now the monument area from south to north passing Two Point Butte, Echo Crater, Big Craters, North Crater Flow, and out of the lava field through the Yellowstone Park and Lincoln Highway (now known as the Old Arco-Carey Road).[22] Taking the dog along was a mistake, Limbert wrote, "for after three days' travel his feet were worn and bleeding."[27]
A series of newspaper and magazine articles written by Limbert were later published about this and previous treks, which increased public awareness of the area. The most famous of these was an article that appeared in a 1924 issue of
It is the play of light at sunset across this lava that charms the spectator. It becomes a twisted, wavy sea. In the moonlight its glazed surface has a silvery sheen. With changing conditions of light and air, it varies also, even while one stands and watches. It is a place of color and silence ...[3]
Protection and later history
In large part due to Limbert's work, the 54,000-acre Craters of the Moon National Monument was proclaimed on May 2, 1924, by U.S. President Calvin Coolidge to "preserve the unusual and weird volcanic formations."[3][27][1] The Craters Inn and several cabins were built in 1927 for the convenience of visitors. The Mission 66 Program initiated construction of today's road system, visitor center, bookstore, campground, and comfort station in 1956, and in 1959 the Craters of the Moon Natural History Association was formed to assist the monument in educational activities.[28] The addition of an island of vegetation completely surrounded by lava known as Carey Kipuka (air photo) increased the size of the monument by 5,360 acres (22 km2) in 1962.[28]
Since then the monument has been enlarged. On October 23, 1970,
From 1969 to 1972,
For many years, geologists, biologists and environmentalists have advocated expansion of the monument and its transformation into a national park. Part of that goal was reached in 2000 when the monument was expanded 13-fold, from 53,545 acres (217 km2) to its current size, to encompass the entire Great Rift zone and its three lava fields.[32] Opposition by cattle interests and hunters to a simple expansion plan led to a compromise of having the National Park Service portion of the addition, which comprises the lava flows, become a national preserve in 2002 (which allows hunting, not ordinarily permitted in national parks and monuments in the U.S.).[33] Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve is co-managed by the National Park Service and the Bureau of Land Management, both under the Department of the Interior; the BLM monument area is the non-lava grasslands.[32] In March 2017, the Idaho Senate voted in favor of petitioning Congress to designate Craters of the Moon a national park.[34]
Geology
The
Leftover heat from this hot spot was later liberated by Basin and Range-associated rifting and created the many overlapping lava flows that make up the Lava Beds of Idaho. The largest rift zone is the Great Rift; it is from this 'Great Rift fissure system' that Craters of the Moon, Kings Bowl, and Wapi lava fields were created. The Great Rift is a National Natural Landmark.
In spite of their fresh appearance, the oldest flows in the Craters of the Moon lava field are 15,000 years old and the youngest erupted about 2,100 years ago, according to Mel Kuntz and other
Kings Bowl Lava Field erupted during a single fissure eruption on the southern part of the Great Rift about 2,250 years ago. This eruption probably lasted only a few hours to a few days. The field preserves explosion pits,
A typical eruption along the Great Rift and similar basaltic rift systems starts with a curtain of very fluid lava shooting up to 1,000 feet (300 m) high along a segment of the rift up to 1 mile (1.6 km) long.
Geologists feared that a large earthquake that shook Borah Peak, Idaho's tallest mountain, in 1983 would restart volcanic activity at Craters of the Moon, though this proved not to be the case.[38] Geologists predict that the area will experience its next eruption sometime in the next 900 years, with activity most likely to occur within the next 100 years.[c]
Biology
Conditions
All plants and animals that live in and around Craters of the Moon are under great environmental stress due to constant dry
Water is usually only found deep inside holes at the bottom of blow-out craters.[13] Animals therefore get the moisture they need directly from their food.[40] The black soil on and around cinder cones does not hold moisture for long, making it difficult for plants to establish themselves. Soil particles first develop from direct rock decomposition by lichens and typically collect in crevices in lava flows. Successively more complex plants then colonize the microhabitat created by the increasingly productive soil.
The shaded north slopes of cinder cones provide more protection from direct sunlight and prevailing southwesterly winds and have a more persistent snow cover (an important water source in early spring). These parts of cinder cones are therefore colonized by plants first.
Gaps between lava flows were sometimes cut off from surrounding vegetation. These literal islands of habitat are called kīpukas, a Hawaiian word describing older land surrounded by younger lava. Carey Kīpuka is one such area in the southernmost part of the monument and is used as a benchmark to measure how plant cover has changed in less pristine parts of southern Idaho.[41]
Plants
There are over 600
- Drought tolerance by physiological adaptations such as the ability to survive extreme dehydration or the ability to extract water from very dry soil. Sagebrush and antelope bitterbrush are examples.
- Drought avoidance by having small, hairy, or succulent leaves to minimize moisture loss or otherwise conserve water. Hairs on scorpionweed, the succulent parts of the prickly pear cactus, and the small leaves of the wirelettuce are all local examples.
- Drought escape by growing in small crevices or near persistent water supplies, or by staying dormant for about 95% of the year.limber pine grow in large crevices.[44] Dwarf monkeyflowers carry out their entire life cycle during the brief wet part of the year and survive in seedform the rest of the time.
A plant commonly seen on the cinder flats is the dwarf buckwheat (Eriogonum ovalifolium var. depressum), a flowering plant 4 inches (100 mm) tall with a root system 3 feet (0.91 m) wide.[12] The root system monopolizes soil moisture in its immediate area, resulting in individual plants that are evenly spaced. Consequently, many visitors ask park rangers if the buckwheat were systematically planted.
Wildflowers bloom from early May to late September but most are gone by late August.[45] Moisture from snowmelt along with some rainfall in late spring kick-starts the germination of annual plants, including wildflowers. Most of these plants complete their entire life cycle in the few months each year that moisture levels are good. The onset of summer decreases the number of wildflowers and by autumn only the tiny yellow flowers of sagebrush and rabbitbrush remain. Some wildflowers that grow in the area are arrowleaf balsamroot, bitterroot, blazingstar, desert parsley, dwarf monkeyflower, Indian paintbrush, scorpionweed, scabland penstemon and the wild onion.
Animals
Years of cataloging by biologists and park rangers have recorded more than 2000 species of insects, 12 reptiles, 203 birds, 59 mammals, and 3 amphibians.[42] Birds and rodents are seen most frequently in the Craters of the Moon area.[40] Grizzly bears, bison, and bighorn sheep once roamed this area but have long ago become locally extinct.[46][47][48] Traditional livestock grazing continues within the grass/shrublands administered by the Bureau of Land Management.[49]
Most desert animals are
Animals that are most active at dawn and dusk, when temperatures are cooler than mid-day, are called
Some desert animals are diurnal, or primarily active during the day. These include ground squirrels, marmots, chipmunks, lizards, snakes, hawks, and eagles.[40]
Many animals have a specific temperature range where they are active, meaning the times they are active vary with the seasons. Snakes and lizards
Several animals are unique to Craters of the Moon and the surrounding area. Unique populations of Great Basin pocket mouse, American pika, and yellow-pine chipmunk are found nowhere else.[50][40] Lava tube beetles and other cave-dwelling invertebrates are found only in the lava tubes of eastern Idaho.[40]
Mule deer
In May 1980 wildlife researcher Brad Griffith of the University of Idaho started a three-year study to mark and count the mule deer in the monument.[51] The National Park Service was concerned that the local herd might grow so large that it would damage its habitat. Griffith found that this group of mule deer had developed a drought evasion strategy unique for its species.[51]
The
Afternoon winds usually die down in the evening, prompting behavioral modifications in the herd. The deer avoid the dry wind by being more active at night when the wind is not blowing.[53] In 1991 there was a three-year average of 420 mule deer.[53]
Recreational activities
A wide variety of volcanic formations and features are accessible from the Loop Road, the only developed area of the park. Wildflowers, shrubs, trees, and wild animals can be seen by hiking on one of the many trails in the monument or by just pulling over into one of the turn-offs. More rugged hiking opportunities are available in the Craters of the Moon backcountry areas, the roadless southern and major part of the park.
- Visitor Center: The Robert Limbert Visitor Center is located at the entrance to the scenic Loop Road. Various displays and publications are available along with a short film about the geology and history of the area help to orient visitors. Ranger-led walks and other programs are available in the summer and cover topics such as history, wildlife, plants, or geology.[54]
- North Crater Flow Trail: A paved trail less than 1⁄4 mile (400 m) long crosses the lava flow for which this trail is named. This lava flow erupted from North Crater cinder cone about 2,200 years ago, making it one of the youngest lava flows on the Craters of the Moon lava field.block lava are readily visible along with large, rafted crater wall fragments called the Monoliths. The Monoliths were once part of a cinder cone, but were torn away when the volcano's lava-filled crater was breached. North Crater Trail, a separate trail, begins 100 yards (91 m) past the North Crater Flow trailhead. This strenuous, 1.8-mile-long trail (2.9 km) continues into North Crater, around Big Craters, and ends at the Spatter Cones parking lot.[56]
- Devils Orchard Nature Trail: Devils Orchard is a group of lava-transported cinder cone fragments (or rafted blocks) that stand in cinders. Like the Monoliths at North Crater Flow, they were once part of the North Crater cinder cone but broke off during an eruption. A paved, accessible, 1/2 mile-long (800 m) loop trail through the formations and trees of the "orchard" is available.[57] Interpretive displays can be read along the trail.
- Inferno Cone: This stop hosts a short, steep trail up to the top of the cinder cone which provides an overlook of the entire monument. From there, the Spatter Cones can be seen just to the southwest along with the line of cinder cones along the Great Rift. In the distance is Big Cinder Butte. At over 700-feet-tall (>200 m) it is one of the world's largest, purely basaltic, cinder cones.[7] Further away are the Pioneer Mountains just north of the highway, and beyond the park are the White Knob Mountains, the Lost River Range, and the Lemhi Range. On the clearest days, the tops of the Tetons may be seen, about 138 miles (222 km) to the east.
- Spatter Cones: Both the Spatter Cones and Big Craters sit directly along part of one of the fissures of the Great Rift. Spatter cones are created by accumulations of pasty, gas-poor lava as they erupt from a vent. Two of the Spatter Cones in this area can be accessed by short trails where visitors can look inside the cones. Big Craters is a cinder cone complex about 800 feet (240 m) up a short, steep trail.[58]
Tree mold showing an impression of a tree trunk and bark in the basalt on the Tree Molds Trail at Craters of the Moon. - Tree Molds: The Tree Molds Trail is an area where lava flows overran part of a forest. The trees were incinerated but as some of them burned they released enough water to cool the lava to form an impression. Some of these casts survived the eruption and mark the exact location and shape of the burning trees in the lava. Both holes and horizontal molds were left, some still showing shapes indicative of bark. Tree molds are visible at the end of the Tree Molds Trail, 1 mile (1.6 km) from the parking area.[55] The Wilderness Trail also leaves from this parking lot and extends nearly 4 miles (6.4 km) into the Craters of the Moon Wilderness before gradually disappearing near The Sentinel cinder cone.[59] The 1.8 miles (2.9 km) Broken Top Loop trail is the third trail that begins at this area and encircles the youngest cinder cone in the park and can be done separately or as part of a longer trek on the Wilderness Trail. This trail features some of the greatest geological and ecological diversity of any trail in the park.[60] A pull-off on the spur road leading to the Tree Molds area showcases the Lava Cascades, a lava river created from the Blue Dragon Flow that temporarily pooled in Big Sink, a former lava lake.
- Caves Area: The final stop on Loop Road which, as the name suggests, features a collection of lava tube caves. Formed from one of the most recent lava flows, the caves are a 0.8 miles (1.3 km) walk from the parking lot and include Dewdrop Cave and Indian Tunnel.[61] The caves are open to visitors in the summer, but a free permit is required to enter.[62] Flashlights are needed in Dewdrop Cave and strongly recommended for Indian Tunnel. Lava tubes are created when the sides and surface of a lava flow hardens. If the fluid interior flows away, a cave is left behind.
The Lava Flow Campground has 41 sites – none of which can be reserved in advance.[63] Camping facilities are basic but do include seasonal water, restrooms, charcoal grills, and trash containers. National Park Service rangers present evening programs at the campground amphitheater in the summer.
The park has a Junior Ranger program which enables children to earn a badge.[64]
See also
- List of National Monuments of the United States
- List of Wilderness Areas in the United States
- List of Volcanoes in the United States
- Fissure Vent
- Cinder Cone
- Yellowstone Hotspot
- Snake River Plain
Notes
- ^ Lower elevation areas near the Snake River average only 10–11 inches (250–280 mm) of precipitation annually.
- ^ Meaning that Craters of the Moon once looked like Yellowstone does today and Yellowstone will one day look much like Craters of the Moon does now. The hot spot stays in the same place while the overlying continent of North America moves. (NPS 1991, pp. 7–12)
- ^ Eruptions were dated using paleomagnetic and radiocarbon methods, which together give dates that are considered accurate to within 100 years (NPS 1991, pp. 28–29). Both tests were conducted in 1980 by using charred vegetation directly below individual flows (for the radiocarbon test), and from rock core samples (for the paleomagnetic work).
References
- ^ a b c Record of Decision – FEIS GMP Archived 2020-11-11 at the Wayback Machine for Craters of the Moon NM and Preserve
- ^ "NPS Annual Recreation Visits Report". National Park Service. Retrieved May 13, 2012.
- ^ a b c NPS 1991, p. 7.
- ^ NPS website, "Management"
- ^ "Programs: National Conservation Lands: Idaho: Craters of the Moon | Bureau of Land Management". Archived from the original on 2020-10-07. Retrieved 2020-07-13.
- ^ Louter 1992.
- ^ a b Owen 2004, "Basaltic Volcanism".
- ^ a b Kiver & Harris 1999, p. 340.
- ^ a b c Kiver & Harris 1999, p. 343.
- ^ a b c Kiver & Harris 1999, p. 339.
- ^ NPS website
- ^ a b c NPS 1991, p. 35.
- ^ a b NPS 1991, p. 13.
- ^ "U.S. Climate Normals Quick Access – Station: Craters of the Moon, ID". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 16, 2023.
- ^ "NOAA Online Weather Data – NWS Pocatello". National Weather Service. Retrieved June 16, 2023.
- ^ a b Kiver & Harris 1999, p. 338.
- ^ a b c d NPS 1991, p. 47.
- ^
ISBN 9780806120874. Retrieved November 22, 2022.
- ^ "USGS website". vulcan.wr.usgs.gov. United States Geologic Survey. Archived from the original on June 21, 2012. Retrieved September 16, 2012.
- ^ a b NPS 1991, p. 48.
- ^ Goodale's Cutoff NPS [1] Archived 2008-07-26 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved September 19, 2013
- ^ a b c NPS 1991, p. 49.
- ^ Kiver & Harris 1999, p. 344.
- ^ NPS 1991, p. 50.
- ^ a b NPS 1991, p. 8.
- ^ a b Limbert, Robert (1924). "Among the 'Craters of the Moon'". National Geographic Magazine: 303–328. Archived from the original on 2012-02-01. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
- ^ a b c NPS 1991, p. 51.
- ^ a b NPS website, "History & Culture"
- ^ "Craters of the Moon Wilderness Area". National Park System. Archived from the original on 2019-08-31. Retrieved 2019-08-31.
- ^ NPS 1991, p. 9.
- ^ Phinney, William (2015). Science Training History of the Apollo Astronauts. NASA SP −2015-626. pp. 235–236.
- ^ a b c Clinton 2000.
- ^ Simpson, Michael K. (2002-08-21). "Text – H.R.601 – 107th Congress (2001–2002): To redesignate certain lands within the Craters of the Moon National Monument, and for other purposes". www.congress.gov. Archived from the original on 2021-09-27. Retrieved 2021-09-27.
- ^ Russell, Betsy. "Idaho Senate wants Congress to declare Craters of the Moon a national park". Spokesman.com. The Spokesman-Review. Archived from the original on 7 March 2017. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
- ^ NPS 1991, p. 24.
- ^ Kiver & Harris 1999, p. 342.
- ^ NPS 1991, p. 29.
- ^ NPS 1991, p. 12.
- ^ NPS 1991, pp. 13–18.
- ^ a b c d e f g h NPS website, "Animals"
- ^ NPS 1991, p. 41.
- ^ a b "NPSpecies: Full List - CRMO". IRMA Portal. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
- ^ NPS 1991, pp. 36–37.
- ^ NPS 1991, p. 38.
- ^ NPS 1991, p. 42.
- ^ "Species Profile - Ursus arctos horribilis, Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO) - Not In Park". IRMA Portal. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
- ^ "Species Profile - Bison bison, Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO) - Not In Park". IRMA Portal. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
- ^ "Species Profile - Ovis canadensis, Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO) - Not In Park". IRMA Portal. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
- ^ "Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve Approved MMP Amendment: Record of Decision" (PDF). eplanning.blm.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
- ^ Beever, E.A. (2002). "Persistence of pikas in two low-elevation national monuments in the western United States". Park Science. 21 (2): 23–29.
- ^ a b c NPS 1991, p. 18.
- ^ NPS 1991, p. 45.
- ^ a b NPS 1991, p. 19.
- ^ "Visitor Center - Craters Of The Moon National Monument & Preserve (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
- ^ a b NPS website, "Trail Descriptions"
- ^ "Hike the North Crater Trail (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
- ^ USGS website.
- ^ "Big Craters (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
- ^ "Backpack the Craters of the Moon Wilderness (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
- ^ "Hike Broken Top Loop (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
- ^ "Explore a Cave (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
- ^ "White-Nose Syndrome and Cave Permitting - Craters Of The Moon National Monument & Preserve (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
- ^ "Camping - Craters Of The Moon National Monument & Preserve (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
- ^ "Junior Ranger - Craters Of The Moon National Monument & Preserve (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
- ^ "Visit Craters in Winter (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
- ^ WRCC 2007.
Bibliography
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Park Service.
- ISBN 9780806120874. Retrieved November 22, 2022.
- Clinton, William Jefferson (November 9, 2000). Boundary Enlargement of the Craters of the Moon National Monument (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Office of the President of the United States. Proclamation 7373. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 12, 2008. Retrieved January 9, 2005.
- Henderson, Paul (1986). Craters of the Moon: Around the Loop. Craters of the Moon Natural History Association.
- Kiver, Eugene P.; Harris, David V. (1999). Geology of U.S. Parklands (5th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-33218-3.
- Louter, David (1992). Craters of the Moon: Administrative history. Seattle, Washington: OCLC 54665106. Retrieved August 24, 2008.
- National Park Service (1991). Craters of the Moon: National Park Handbook (139). Washington D.C.: National Park Service Division of Publications. ISBN 978-0-912627-44-1.
- National Park Service. "Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve, official website". National Park Service. pp. "Animals", "Campground", "History & Culture", "Management", "Trail Descriptions". Retrieved August 26, 2008. (public domain text)
- Owen, Doug (2004). "Geology of Craters of the Moon". National Park Service. Archived from the original on 21 April 2008. Retrieved September 14, 2008.
- United States Geological Survey. "America's Volcanic Past: Craters of the Moon National Monument". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on May 17, 2008. Retrieved August 10, 2008.
- Western Regional Climate Center (2007). "Craters of the Moon NM, Idaho (102260): Period of Record Monthly Climate Summary". Western Regional Climate Center. Retrieved September 14, 2008.
External links
- Official websites:
- Presidential Proclamation 7373 (William Jefferson Clinton) – Boundary Enlargement of the Craters of the Moon National Monument — (also used as a reference)
- NPS: Geology of Craters of the Moon — (also used as a reference)
- NPS: Craters of the Moon − Historic Context Statements
- Earthscope.org: Interpreting the Geologic Story of Craters of the Moon
- A Trip to the Moon Documentary produced by Idaho Public Television
- An entry by the International Dark-Sky Association