Elk
Elk Temporal range: Pleistocene – Recent
Early | |
---|---|
A bull (male) in Alberta, Canada | |
A cow (female) with calf in Wyoming, United States | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Artiodactyla |
Family: | Cervidae |
Subfamily: | Cervinae |
Genus: | Cervus |
Species: | C. canadensis
|
Binomial name | |
Cervus canadensis | |
Subspecies | |
Reconstructed (light green) and current (dark green) native ranges of Cervus canadensis | |
Synonyms | |
Various |
The elk (pl.: elk or elks; Cervus canadensis), or wapiti, is the second
Elk range in forest and forest-edge habitat, feeding on grasses, plants, leaves, and bark. Male elk have large
Elk are susceptible to several
Naming and etymology
By the 17th century, Alces alces (moose, called "elk" in Europe) had long been
According to the
The American Cervus canadensis was recognized as a relative of the red deer (Cervus elaphus) of Europe, and so Cervus canadensis were referred to as "red deer".
Taxonomy
Members of the genus Cervus (and hence early relatives or possible ancestors of the elk) first appear in the fossil record 25 million years ago, during the Oligocene in Eurasia, but do not appear in the North American fossil record until the early Miocene.[10] The extinct Irish elk (Megaloceros) was not a member of the genus Cervus but rather the largest member of the wider deer family (Cervidae) known from the fossil record.[11]
Until recently, red deer and elk were considered to be one species, Cervus elaphus,
Elk and red deer produce fertile offspring in captivity, and the two species have freely inter-bred in New Zealand's Fiordland National Park. The cross-bred animals have resulted in the disappearance of virtually all pure elk blood from the area.[14] Key morphological differences that distinguish C. canadensis from C. elaphus are the former's wider rump patch and paler-hued antlers.[15]
Subspecies
There are numerous subspecies of elk described, with six from North America and four from Asia, although some taxonomists consider them different ecotypes or races of the same species (adapted to local environments through minor changes in appearance and behavior). Populations vary in antler shape and size, body size, coloration and mating behavior. DNA investigations of the Eurasian subspecies revealed that phenotypic variation in antlers, mane and rump patch development are based on "climatic-related lifestyle factors".[15] Of the six subspecies of elk known to have inhabited North America in historical times, four remain, including the Roosevelt's (C. canadensis roosevelti), tule (C. canadensis nannodes), Manitoban (C. canadensis manitobensis) and Rocky Mountain elk (C. canadensis nelsoni).[16] The eastern elk (C. canadensis canadensis) and Merriam's elk (C. canadensis merriami) subspecies have been extinct for at least a century.[17][18]
Four subspecies described in Asia include the
Recent DNA studies suggest that there are no more than three or four subspecies of elk. All American forms, aside from possibly the tule and Roosevelt's elk, seem to belong to one subspecies (Cervus canadensis canadensis). Even the Siberian elk (Cervus canadensis sibiricus) are more or less identical to the American forms and therefore may belong to this subspecies, too. However, the Manchurian wapiti (Cervus canadensis xanthopygus) is clearly distinct from the Siberian forms, but not distinguishable from the Alashan wapiti. The Chinese forms (the Sichuan deer, Kansu red deer, and Tibetan red deer) also belong to the wapiti, and were not distinguishable from each other by mitochondrial DNA studies.[13] These Chinese subspecies are sometimes treated as a distinct species, namely the Central Asian red deer (Cervus hanglu), which also includes the Kashmir stag.[20]
- North American group
- Roosevelt's elk(C. c. roosevelti)
- Tule elk (C. c. nannodes)
- Manitoban elk (C. c. manitobensis)
- Rocky Mountain elk (C. c. nelsoni)
- Eastern elk (C. c. canadensis; extinct)
- Merriam's elk (C. c. merriami; extinct)
- Asian/Eastern group
- Altai wapiti (C. c. sibiricus)
- Tian Shan wapiti (C. c. songaricus)
- Manchurian wapiti (C. c. xanthopygus)
- Alashan wapiti (C. c. alashanicus)
- Tibetan red deer (C. c. wallichii)
-
Illustration of eastern elk.
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Illustration of Altai wapiti.
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Illustration of Manchurian wapiti.
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Illustration of Kashmir stag.
Characteristics
Elk have thick bodies with slender legs and short tails. They have a shoulder height of 0.75–1.5 m (2 ft 6 in – 4 ft 11 in) with a nose-to-tail length of 1.6–2.7 m (5 ft 3 in – 8 ft 10 in). Males are larger and weigh 178–497 kg (392–1,096 lb) while females weigh 171–292 kg (377–644 lb).
Antlers are made of bone, which can grow at a rate of 2.5 centimeters (0.98 in) per day. While actively growing, a soft layer of highly vascularized skin known as
During the fall, elk grow a thicker coat of hair, which helps to insulate them during the winter.
Behavior and ecology
Elk are among the most gregarious deer species.[31]: 52 During the summer group size can reach 400 individuals.[21] For most of the year, adult males and females are segregated into different herds. Female herds are larger while bulls form small groups and may even travel alone. Young bulls may associate with older bulls or female groups. Male and female herds come together during the mating season, which may begin in late August.[31]: 75, 82 Males try to intimidate rivals by vocalizing and displaying with their antlers.[31]: 109 If neither bull backs down, they engage in antler wrestling, sometimes sustaining serious injuries.[32]
Bulls have a loud, high-pitched, whistle-like vocalization known as bugling, which advertise the male's fitness over great distances. Unusual for a vocalization produced by a large animal, buglings can reach a frequency of 4000 Hz. This is achieved by blowing air from the glottis through the nasal cavities. Elk can produce deeper pitched (150 Hz) sounds using the larynx.[33] Cows produce an alarm bark to alert other members of the herd to danger, while calves will produce a high-pitched scream when attacked.[34]
Reproduction and life cycle
Female elk have a short
A bull interacts with cows in his harem in two ways: herding and courtship. When a female wanders too far away from the harem's range, the male will rush ahead of her, block her path and aggressively rush her back to the harem. Herding behavior is accompanied by a stretched out and lowered neck and the antlers laid back. A bull may get violent and hit the cow with his antlers. During courtship, the bull is more peaceful and approaches her with his head and antlers raised. The male signals his intention to test the female for sexual receptivity by flicking his tongue. If not ready, a cow will lower her head and weave from side to side while opening and closing her mouth. The bull will stop in response in order not to scare her.[31]: 100–101 Otherwise, the bull will copiously lick the female and then mount her.[31]: 115
Younger, less dominant bulls, known as "spike bulls" because their antlers have not yet forked, will harass unguarded cows. These bulls are impatient and will not perform any courtship rituals and will continue to pursue a female even when she signals him to stop. As such, they are less reproductively successful, and a cow may stay close to the big bull to avoid harassment. Dominant bulls are intolerant of spike bulls and will chase them away from their harems.[31]: 100–105
The gestation period is eight to nine months and the offspring weigh around 16 kilograms (35 lb). When the females are near to giving birth, they tend to isolate themselves from the main herd, and will remain isolated until the calf is large enough to escape predators.[32] Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and they lose their spots by the end of summer. After two weeks, calves are able to join the herd, and are fully weaned at two months of age.[21] Elk calves are as large as an adult white-tailed deer by the time they are six months old.[39] Elk will leave their natal (birth) ranges before they are three years old. Males disperse more often than females, as adult cows are more tolerant of female offspring from previous years.[40] Elk live 20 years or more in captivity but average 10 to 13 years in the wild. In some subspecies that suffer less predation, they may live an average of 15 years in the wild.[41]
Migration
As is true for many species of deer, especially those in mountainous regions, elk migrate into areas of higher altitude in the spring, following the retreating snows, and the opposite direction in the fall. Hunting pressure impacts migration and movement.[42] During the winter, they favor wooded areas for the greater availability of food to eat. Elk do not appear to benefit from thermal cover.[43] The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem elk herds comprise as many as 40,000 individuals.[44] During the spring and fall, they take part in the longest elk migration in the continental U.S., traveling as much as 168 mi (270 km) between summer and winter ranges. The Teton herd consists of between 9,000 and 13,000 elk and they spend winters on the National Elk Refuge, having migrated south from the southern portions of Yellowstone National Park and west from the Shoshone and Bridger–Teton National Forests.[45]
Diet
Elk are ruminants and therefore have four-chambered stomachs. Unlike white-tailed deer and moose, which are chiefly browsers, elk are similar to
Research in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem has found that supplemental feeding of concentrated alfalfa pellets leads to significant alterations in the elks' microbiome.[52] The elk gut microbiome is typically characterized by a diverse community of bacteria specialized in breaking down complex plant fibers and cellulose, whereas the supplementally fed gut microbiome may have less fiber-digesting bacteria.[53] Therefore, transitioning from natural foraging to concentrated alfalfa pellets can cause changes in the gut microbiome that might affect the elk's ability to efficiently digest their natural diet or could potentially lead to imbalances that affect overall health.[52]
Predators and defensive tactics
Predators of elk include
Elk may avoid predation by switching from grazing to browsing. Grazing puts an elk in the compromising situation of being in an open area with its head down, leaving it unable to see what is going on in the surrounding area.[60] Living in groups also lessens the risk of an individual falling to predation. Large bull elk are less vulnerable and can afford to wander alone, while cows stay in larger groups for protection for their calves.[31]: 75 Bulls are more vulnerable to predation by wolves in late winter, after they have been weakened by months of chasing females and fighting.[59] Males that have recently lost their antlers are more likely to be preyed upon.[61]
Parasites and disease
At least 53 species of
The
A recent necropsy study of captive elk in Pennsylvania attributed the cause of death in 33 of 65 cases to either gastrointestinal parasites (21 cases, primarily Eimeria sp. and Ostertagia sp.) or bacterial infections (12 cases, mostly pneumonia).[71]
Elk hoof disease was first noticed in the state of Washington in the late 1990s in the Cowlitz River basin, with sporadic reports of deformed hooves. Since then, the disease has spread rapidly with increased sightings throughout southwest Washington and into Oregon. The disease is characterised by deformed, broken, or missing hooves and leads to severe lameness in elk. The primary cause is not known, but it is associated with treponeme bacteria, which are known to cause digital dermatitis in commercial livestock. The mode of transmission is also not known, but it appears to be highly contagious among elk. Studies are being undertaken by government departments to determine how to halt or eliminate the disease.[72][73][74]
Distribution and status
The elk ranges from central Asia through to Siberia and east Asia and in North America. They can be found in open deciduous woodlands, boreal forests, upland moors, mountainous areas and grasslands. The
Introductions and reintroductions
As of 2014, population figures for all North American elk subspecies were around one million. Prior to the European colonization of North America, there were an estimated 10 million on the continent.[76]
There are many past and ongoing examples of reintroduction into areas of the US. Elk were reintroduced in
Elk and red deer were introduced to Argentina in the early 20th century.[90] There they are now considered an invasive species, encroaching on Argentinian ecosystems where they compete for food with the indigenous Chilean huemul and other herbivores.[91] This negative impact on native animal species has led the IUCN to identify the elk as one of the world's 100 worst invaders.[92]
The introduction of deer to New Zealand began in the middle of the 19th century, and current populations are primarily European red deer, with only 15 percent being elk.[93] In 1905 18 American wapiti were released in George Sound in the Fiordland National Park.[94] In 1949 the New Zealand American Fiordland Expedition was undertaken to study the descendants of this release.[94] There is significant hybridization of elk with red deer.[95] These deer have had an adverse impact on forest regeneration of some plant species, as they consume more palatable species, which are replaced with those that are less favored by the elk. The long-term impact will be an alteration of the types of plants and trees found, and in other animal and plant species dependent upon them.[96] As in Chile and Argentina, the IUCN has declared that red deer and elk populations in New Zealand are an invasive species.[92]
Estimated number of elk per U.S. state
State | Estimated Number of Elk |
---|---|
Arizona | 35,000[97] |
Arkansas | 450 [98] |
California | 12,500 [99] |
Colorado | 280,000 [100] |
Idaho | 120,000 [101] |
Kansas | 175 - 350 [102] |
Kentucky | 15,876 [103] |
Michigan | 1,196 [104] |
Minnesota | 126 [105] |
Missouri | 200 [106] |
Montana | 141,785 [107] |
Nevada | 12,500 [108] |
New Mexico | 70,000 - 90,000 [109] |
North Carolina | 150 - 200 [110] |
North Dakota | 700 [111][112] |
Oklahoma | 5,000 [113] |
Oregon | 133,000 [114][115] |
Pennsylvania | 1,400 [116] |
South Dakota | 6,000 [117] |
Tennessee | 400 [118] |
Texas | 1,600[119] |
Utah | 81,000 [120] |
Virginia | 250 [121] |
Washington | 60,000 [122] |
West Virginia | 80 [123] |
Wisconsin | 400 [124] |
Wyoming | 110,200 [125] |
Cultural references
Elk have played an important role in the cultural history of a number of peoples.
The Rocky Mountain elk is the official state animal for Utah.[129] An image of an elk and a moose appear on the state seal and flag of Michigan.[130] The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks (B.P.O.E.) chose the elk as its namesake because a number of its attributes seemed appropriate for cultivation by members of the fraternity.[131] Jewel encrusted, gold mounted elk teeth are prized possession of many members of the B.P.O.E.[132]
Commercial uses
Although breakdown figures for each game species are not available in the 2006 National Survey from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, hunting of wild elk is most likely the primary economic impact.[133]
While elk are not generally harvested for meat production on a large scale, some restaurants offer the meat as a specialty item and it is also available in some grocery stores. The meat has a taste somewhere between beef and venison and is higher in protein and lower in fat and cholesterol than beef, pork, and chicken.[134] Elk meat is a good source of iron, phosphorus and zinc.[135]
A male elk can produce 10 to 11 kilograms (22 to 24 lb) of
Antlers are also used in artwork, furniture and other novelty items. All Asian subspecies, along with other deer, have been raised for their antlers in central and eastern Asia by
Since 1967, the Boy Scouts of America have assisted employees at the National Elk Refuge in Wyoming by collecting the antlers which are shed each winter. They are then auctioned, with 80% of the proceeds returned to the refuge. In 2010, 2,520 kilograms (5,560 lb) of antlers were auctioned, which brought in over $46,000.[139]
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{{cite web}}
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External links
- Arizona Elk Archived 30 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine Arizona Game and Fish Department
- Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation
- Yellowstone Elk – Greater Yellowstone Resource Guide Archived 17 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- Smithsonian Institution - North American Mammals: Cervus (elaphus) canadensis Archived 26 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine